The Science of Learning: implications for modern teaching

Keynote presentation to the Educational Leaders hui Kōkiritia Marautanga held in Auckland on 26 June 2024. Provides a high level overview of the history and development of the science of learning, and implications for the design of learning in our modern schools and classrooms.

1. Inspiring the next
generation of
leaders, thinkers
and problem-
solvers
[email protected]
@dwenmoth
www.futuremakers.nz
http://www.futuremakers.nz/blog
The Science of Learning
Kōkiritia Marautanga
26 June 2024

2. Teaching is the only major occupation...for which we have not developed tools that make an average person capable of competence and performance. In teaching we rely on the naturals, the ones who somehow know how to teach.
Peter Drucker
"Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices" published in 1973.

3. •President Roosevelt called
for the production of 50,000
airplanes a year on May 16,
1940
•Traditionally took 2 years to
train a pilot.
•Military training had to be,
of necessity, "quick,
efficient, and standardized.”
•Brought together a group of
elite academics to design a
training approach to reduce
the time to six weeks.

4. Dale’s Cone of Experience
•Audiovisual Methods in Teaching(1946)
•Provides an intuitive model of the
concreteness of various kinds of audio-
visual media.
•Strong advocate for the use of audio-
visual materials to enhance and embed learning.
•Iconic phase also known as the
‘mediated’ zone – provided impetus for
Educational Media as a discipline
https://www.growthengineering.co.uk/what-is-edgar-dales-cone-of-experience/

5. Pressey’s Teaching Machine
•1924, Sidney L. Pressey created a crude
teaching machine suitable for rote-and-drill
learning.
•This machine is designed to teach by having
students answer a series of short multiple
choicequestions and rewarding correct
replies.
•Unique among instructional aids, in that the
student not merely passively listen, watches,
or reads but actively responds.
•Thorndikehad a great influence on Pressey.
•B. F. Skinnerwas also interested in a teaching
Machine.
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/machine.html

6. Tape-slide Machines
•Consisting of aslide showusing
afilmstripmachine with
synchronised accompanying audio
•Well-planned lessons and
contents could be used many
times.
•Lessons couldbereviewedby
learners.

7. The Overhead Projector
•French physicist Edmond Becquerel developed the first known overhead projection apparatus in 1853. It was demonstrated by French instrument maker and inventor Jules Duboscqin 1866.
•In an effort tomore efficiently train specialized troops on their way into battle, the U.S. military first brought overhead projectors into their classrooms during World War II.

8. So it’s all about
how we use
technology?
Image source: StorySet

9. Teaching Machines
“Since the beginning there has been a
contradiction between the promise of making
learning more personalized and the reality that
teaching machines often required a higher
level of standardization.”
Audrey Watters
MIT Press February, 2023
https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262546065/teaching-machines/

10. •Late 1940s, U.S. air force
discovers the flaw of
averages
•High percentage of planes
crashing on landing
•Engineers found nothing
wrong with the planes –
seldom malfunctioned
•Concluded it to be a matter
of pilot error
•Focused then on the cockpit
– designed for the ‘average’
male pilot
•Study found out of 4,063
pilots, not a single airman
fit within the average range
on all 9 dimensions.
https://www.amazon.com/End-Average-Succeed-Values-Sameness/dp/0062358367

11. Agency is key
https://futuremakers.nz/agency-by-design/

12. https://www.schooljoy.com/
Could AI change all that?

13. Clubs & Activities
Learner
Interests
Knowledge, Skills, &
Competencies
Community Service &
Work-based Learning
Who students
are
Where students
want to go
Resume
Management
Individualized
Career Plans
Aspirations for
Life
Core Instruction
Stakeholder
Reporting
Integrated Career
Exploration
What and how
students learn
Strength-based
Learning

14. How does this
relate to the
science of learning
exactly?
Image source: StorySet

15. What is
science?
•The pursuit and application of knowledge
and understanding of the natural and social
world following a systematic methodology
based on evidence. (The Science Council)
•The systematic study of the structure and
behaviour of the physical and natural world
through observation,experimentation, and
the testing of theories against the evidence
obtained. (Oxford Dictionary)
•A rigorous,systematic endeavour that builds
and organizes knowledge in the form of
testableexplanations and predictions about
the world. (Wikipedia)

16. What is
Learning?
•The acquisition of knowledge or skills through
study, experience, or being taught. (Oxford
Dictionary)
•The act or process of acquiring knowledge or
skill.(Dictionary.com)
•The activity or process of gaining knowledge
or skill by studying, practicing, being taught,
or experiencing something:the activity of
someone who learns. (Britannica)
•Theprocess of acquiring new understanding,
knowledge, behaviours, skills, values,
attitudes and preferences. (Wikipedia)

17. The terms “science of learning,” “the science of learning and development (SoLD),” and the
“learning sciences” refer to a multidisciplinary field
of research that incorporates child neuroscience,
psychology, sociology, behavioural development, and cognitive learning.
The learning sciences provide insights into how
students learn, grow, and develop into whole
individuals.
https://aurora-institute.org/resource/aligning-education-policy-with-the-science-of-learning-and-development/

18. Whose science?
•Much of the "science" comes from a
limited cultural viewpoint
•It often separates learning from its
holistic/spiritual context
•It doesn't necessarily recognise Māori
paradigms like tuakana-teina mentoring
•Does the linear "release of
responsibility" from teacher to
student conflict with Māori views of collective, reciprocal learning?
•Does it account for how Māori
students' literacy learning is shaped
by te reo Māori and oral traditions?
•Does implementing this framework
'as-is' risk subtracting or devaluing
Māori learners' strengths, identities
and funds of knowledge around literacy?
https://www.engaginglearningvoices.com/post/the-science-of-learning-a-tangata-tiriti-lens

19. How is this
different from
educational
theory?
Image source: StorySet

20. FromReview of the MAG -AEC
The report states, "While teaching must be informed by science much more
than it has been (p.4)," implying that teachers have not previously been
guided by educational models based on scientific exploration. This
assumption requires clarification of what is meant by 'science.' Historically,
education has been informed by multiple scientific theories, including
behavioural sciences, social learning theories, developmental theories, and
cognitive sciences. For example, Piaget's developmental stages, Vygotsky's
social development theory, and Bandura's social learning theory have long
guided educational practices. The assertion that teaching needs to be more
scientifically informed fails to recognise the existing integration of these well-
established scientific models in educational settings.

21. From Review of the MAG -AEC
The report states, "While teaching must be informed by science much more
than it has been (p.4)," implying that teachers have not previously been
guided by educational models based on scientific exploration. This
assumption requires clarification of what is meant by 'science.' Historically,
education has been informed by multiple scientific theories, including
behavioural sciences, social learning theories, developmental theories, and
cognitive sciences. For example, Piaget's developmental stages, Vygotsky's
social development theory, and Bandura's social learning theory have long
guided educational practices. The assertion that teaching needs to be more
scientifically informed fails to recognise the existing integration of these well-
established scientific models in educational settings.

22. x xx
Key influencers…
Frederick Taylor
1856 –1915
John Dewey
1859 –1952
Apirana Ngata
1874 - 1950

23. x xx
Key influencers…
Frederick Taylor
1856 –1915
John Dewey
1859 –1952
Apirana Ngata
1874 - 1950

24. x xx
Key influencers…
Frederick Taylor
1856 –1915
John Dewey
1859 –1952
Apirana Ngata
1874 - 1950

25. x xx
Key influencers…
Frederick Taylor
1856 –1915
John Dewey
1859 –1952
Apirana Ngata
1874 - 1950

26. x xx
Their education legacy…
Challenge
Curiosity
Connectedness
Context
Culture
“Colonialism”
Control
Conformity
Compliance

27. https://blog.richardmillwood.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Learning-Theory.pdf
But wait...
....there’s more!

28. Where does
pedagogy fit?
Image source: StorySet

29. Pedagogy
Pedagogy describes the art and
science of teaching students.
The term comes from the Greek word ‘paidagogos,’ a combination
of ‘paidos’ (child) and ‘agogos’
(leader).
Originally the word for an enslaved person who brought
children to school.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pedagogy

30. https://www.jamieleeclark.com/graphics
“Cognitive Load Theory
(CLT) explores how the
mental effort required to
process information
affects learning.”

31. Causing
Cognitive
Chaos?

32. So what does this
mean in the
classroom?
Image source: StorySet

33. Implications for Instructional Design
How is the ‘science of learning’
informing the design of learning in
the classrooms in your school?
Whataresomeofthespecific
teachingstrategiesthat you could
identify?
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

34. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•linking new learning to what
has already been taught.
•Intentionally ordering the
learning into patterns that
foster the building of
connections.
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

35. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•Find out what ākonga already know.
•Link learning to their interests, culture, languages and home experiences helps grow networks and develop schema.
•Use familiar contexts to introduce new concepts.
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

36. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•Identify places where new information can be broken into smaller blocks of that won’t overload the brain’s working memory.E.g.
•Jigsaw activities or expert groups
•Station rotation
•Mnemonics, anagrams, analogies, metaphors to link seemingly unrelated facts
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

37. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•Use strategies that require students to bring information to mind from memory.E.g.
•Low stakes quiz (Kahoot!)
•Responding to questions.
•Mind-mapping or sketch-noting what they have learned
•Daily or weekly starter activity that revisits previously learned content.
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

38. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•Using planned intervals to revisit a particular piece of information or rehearse a particular skill. E.g.
•Daily rehearsal or practice of skills (music, sport)
•Daily revision of key vocabulary (flash cards, vocabulary fans)
•Lesson starters or “do now” activities (drawing/labelling diagrams, close activities, crosswords)
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

39. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•Mixing different topics or forms of practice which is more effective than blocked practice. E.g.
•Practice vocabulary by mixing words from unrelated topics
•Rehearse multiple scenes from a play (or multiple pieces of music) each day over a period of time.
•Mix up the types of calculations required to solve problems.
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

40. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•Carefully chose texts and images
that help manage cognitive load
and reduce extraneous load. E.g.
•Using audio/ visuals to
explain/demonstrate.
•Using a graphic organiser
•Using concrete materials while
verbally explaining (show and tell)
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

41. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•Demonstrate the processes involved in arriving at a new skill or conclusion. E.g.
•Model new skills/learning
•Use exemplars
•Shared writing
•Shared reading
•Do maths examples together - ask Qs to draw out existing knowledge
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

42. Implications for Instructional Design
•Sequencing of content
•Eliciting prior knowledge
•Chunking
•Retrieval practice
•Spaced practice
•Interleaving
•Presentation of materials
•Worked examples
•Concrete before abstract
•Relate new learning to a real-
world examples to make
theoretical or complex ideas
easier to understand. E.g.
•Use visual aids to illustrate
•Manipulate physical materials in maths
https://shorturl.at/OIxNX

43. The purpose of The Science of Learning is to
summarize the existing research from
cognitive science related to how students learn, and connect this research to its practical
implications for teaching and learning.
This document is intended to serve as a
resource to teacher-educators, new teachers,
and anyone in the education profession who is interested in our best scientific understanding
of how learning takes place.
https://www.deansforimpact.org/tools-and-resources/the-science-of-learning

44. https://gazette.education.govt.nz/articles/research-informed-approach-empowers-exceptional-learning/

45. Teaching is the only major occupation...for which we have not developed tools that make an average person capable of competence and performance. In teaching we rely on the naturals, the ones who somehow know how to teach.
Peter Drucker
"Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices" published in 1973.

46. Call to action...
•What are you doing to ensure the links
between theory and practice remain dynamic
and current in your school?
•How do you encourage the explicit
referencing of theory and principles of the
science of learning in the approaches taken to designing learning in your school?
•What’s one thing from this presentation that
you might act on to improve the rigor and
intent of the learning programmes in your
school?
https://futuremakers.nz/2024/06/22/bringing-back-the-inkwells/

47. Thank You
See also https://futuremakers.nz/2024/02/03/science-of-learning/
[email protected]
@dwenmoth
www.futuremakers.nz
http://futuremakers.nz/blog