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CROP PRODUCTION SCIENCE IN HORTICULTURE SERIES
Series Editor: Jeff Atherton, Professor of Tropical Horticulture,
University of the West Indies, Barbados
This series examines economically important horticultural crops selected from the
major production systems in temperate, subtropical and tropical climatic areas.
Systems represented range from open ﬁ eld and plantation sites to protected plastic
and glass houses, growing rooms and laboratories. Emphasis is placed on the scientiﬁ c
principles underlying crop production practices rather than on providing empirical
recipes for uncritical acceptance. Scientiﬁ c understanding provides the key to both
reasoned choice of practice and the solution of future problems.
Students and staff at universities and colleges throughout the world involved in
courses in horticulture, as well as in agriculture, plant science, food science and
applied biology at degree, diploma or certiﬁ cate level will welcome this series as a
succinct and readable source of information. The books will also be invaluable to
progressive growers, advisers and end-product users requiring an authoritative, but
brief, scientiﬁ c introduction to particular crops or systems. Keen gardeners wishing
to understand the scientiﬁ c basis of recommended practices will also ﬁ nd the series
very useful.
The authors are all internationally renowned experts with extensive experience
of their subjects. Each volume follows a common format covering all aspects of
production, from background physiology and breeding, to propagation and planting,
through husbandry and crop protection, to harvesting, handling and storage. Selective
references are included to direct the reader to further information on speciﬁ c topics.
Titles Available:
1. Ornamental Bulbs, Corms and Tubers A.R. Rees
2. CitrusF.S. Davies and L.G. Albrigo
3. Onions and Other Vegetable Alliums J.L. Brewster
4. Ornamental Bedding PlantsA.M. Armitage
5. Bananas and Plantains J.C. Robinson
6. Cucurbits R.W. Robinson and D.S. Decker-Walters
7. Tropical Fruits H.Y. Nakasone and R.E. Paull
8. Coffee, Cocoa and Tea K.C. Willson
9. Lettuce, Endive and ChicoryE.J. Ryder
10. Carrots and Related Vegetable UmbelliferaeV.E. Rubatzky, C.F. Quiros and
P.W. Simon
11. Strawberries J.F. Hancock
12. Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums P.W. Bosland and E.J. Votava
13. Tomatoes E. Heuvelink
14. Vegetable Brassicas and Related Crucifers G. Dixon
15. Onions and Other Vegetable Alliums, 2nd Edition J.L. Brewster
16. Grapes G.L. Creasy and L.L. Creasy
17. Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams and Aroids V.
Lebot
18. Olives I. Therios
19. Bananas and Plantains, 2nd Edition J.C. Robinson and V. Galán Saúco
20. Tropical Fruits, 2nd Edition Volume 1 R.E.Paull and O. Duarte
21.BlueberriesJ. Retamales and J.F. Hancock
22. Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums, 2nd Edition P.W. Bosland and E.J.
Votava
23. Raspberries R.C. Funt

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TROPICAL FRUITS,
2ND EDITION, VOLUME II
Robert E. Paull
Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, HI, USA
and
Odilo Duarte
Retired Professor - Escuela Agrícola Panamericana
El Zamorano, Honduras
Now: Professor and Lead Scientist in Agribusiness
CENTRUM Católica Business School
Pontiﬁ cia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, Perú

CABI is a trading name of CAB International
CABI
Nosworthy Way
Wallingford
Oxfordshire OX10 8DE
UK
Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111
Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.cabi.org
CABI
875 Massachusetts Avenue
7th Floor
Cambridge, MA 02139
USA
T: +1 800 552 3083 (toll free)
T: +1 (0)617 395 4051
E-mail: [email protected]
© R.E. Paull and O. Duarte 2012. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
copyright owners.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library,
London, UK.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Paull, Robert E.
Tropical fruits / Robert E. Paull and Odilo Duarte. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm. -- (Crop production science in horticulture series ; no. 20)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84593-672-3 (alk. paper)
1. Tropical fruit. I. Duarte, Odilo. II. C.A.B. International. III. Title. IV.
Series: Crop production science in horticulture ; 20.
SB359.P38 2011
634’.6--dc22
2010016776
ISBN-13: 978 1 84593 789 8
Commissioning editor: Sarah Hulbert
Editorial assistant: Chris Shire
Production editor: Simon Hill
Typeset by Columns Design XML, Reading.
Printed and bound in the UK by MPG Books Ltd.

v
CONTENTS
PREFACE vii
A
CKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix
1
A
NNONAS: SOURSOP AND ROLLINIA 1
2
B
READFRUIT, JACKFRUIT, CHEMPEDAK AND MARANG 25
3
C
ARAMBOLA AND BILIMBI 53
4
D
URIAN 75
5
G
UAVA 91
6
M
ANGOSTEEN 123
7
R
AMBUTAN AND PULASAN 139
8
P
ASSION FRUIT AND GIANT PASSION FRUIT 161
9
P
ALMS 191

vi Contents
10
O
THER AFRICAN FRUIT: TAMARIND, MARULA AND ACKEE 223
11
O
THER TROPICAL ASIAN AND PACIFIC FRUIT 255
12
A
MERICAN FRUIT 303
I
NDEX 363

vii
PREFACE
Volume I presented the general aspects of tropical fruit production and
covered the major tropical fruit in international trade such as banana,
pineapple, papaya, mango and avocado. Many other tropical fruit, already
well-known in the tropics, are now appearing in larger temperate city
markets. In this volume, we have selected those that are being increasingly
seen in overseas markets outside of the tropics.
The choice of crops to present in Volume II was the greatest challenge,
especially in the last three chapters dealing with other Asian and Paciﬁ c,
African and American Fruits. The fruit crops covered in these last three
chapters is the tip of what is available and that have considerable potential as
fruit crops. A number of the chapter fruit sections show the signiﬁ cant gaps
in our knowledge of managing these fruit crops in large orchards and not
backyard production. A major gap is lack of breeding eff ort to develop varieties
suitable for intensive production that have disease and insect resistance, high
yield and desired fruit quality that suit diff erent growing environments and
consumer markets.
We have followed the same chapter layout used in the ﬁ rst edition and
Volume I of this edition. The information in each fruit chapter deals with
taxonomy, varieties, propagation and orchard management, biotic and abiotic
problems, variety development and postharvest handling. The information
contained should be of use to all readers and students interested in an
introductory text on tropical fruit production.
Many have contributed to the endeavour. Encouragement and help of
Henry in this passion came from many and acknowledged in the First and
Second Editions. Numerous comments and suggestions from colleagues
have been incorporated. All errors and omissions are our responsibility. The
illustrations of many of the crops covered in this Volume and for Volume
I were done by Susan Monden in Honolulu. The family of Dr. Jorge Leon
granted us permission to use the ﬁ gures from ‘Botánica de los Cultivos
Tropicales’. Dr. Lionel Robineau, coordinator TRAMIL gave us permission

viii Preface
to use the Hylocereus drawing and Dr. Mike Nagao the use of the Pulasan
picture. Mrs. Meg Coates Palgrave kindly agreed to let us use the Marula
drawing from Trees of Central Africa though we are unable to render it in
colour. The editor of Flore Analytique du Bénin let us use the ackee drawing.
Thanks are also due to the Commissioning Editor Sarah Hulbert and
Christopher Shire at CABI for their assistance and patience during the book’s
development.
We would greatly appreciate receiving all comments and suggestions on
this text. We can be reached at the address in the front of the text or via E-mail
at [email protected] or [email protected].
In closing, we both acknowledge the continued support, assistance,
and love of our wives Nancy and Carla, and our children that enabled us to
complete this undertaking.
Robert E. Paull
Honolulu, USA. 2012
Odilo Duarte
Lima, Peru. 2012

ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support, information, and ideas
supplied by Jeff Anderson, Alton Bailey, Jit Baral, Lou Biad, Chris Biad, Anna
Biad, Judy Bosland, Emily Bosland, Will Bosland, Emma Jean Cervantes,
Danise Coon, Deyuan Wang, Natalie Goldberg, Max Gonzalez, Wendy
Hamilton, Steve Hanson, John Hard, Sue Hard, Jaime Iglesias, Sanjeet Kumar,
Jimmy Lytle, Jo Lytle, Ariadna Monroy, Mary O’Connell, Jaebok Park, Jennifer
Randall, Adrian Rodriquez, Robert Steiner, Ousmane Sy, Betty Terrien,
Nankui Tong, Manju Vishwakarma, Stephanie Walker, April Ulery, Everardo
Zamora, and the Chile team at New Mexico State University.

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© Paull and Duarte 2012. Tropical Fruits, 2nd Edition, Volume II 1
(R.E. Paull and O. Duarte)
ANNONAS: SOURSOP ANDROLLINIA
BOTANY
Family
Both soursop and Rollinia belong to the Annonaceae, commonly referred to
as the custard-apple family. The family consists of about 75 genera that are
now widely distributed. Some Annona species are grown as ornamentals, while
others are known for their edible fruit and perfume.
Important genera and species
The soursop belongs to the most important genus Annona, which among its
more than 100 species has seven species and one hybrid that are grown
commercially worldwide. Soursop is the most tropical of these species and has
the largest fruit. Rollinia (or biriba) belongs to the closely related genus Rollinia
and it is not as well known as soursop. The two most important commercial
species are cherimoya and sweetsop. Along with the hybrid, atemoya, all three
are discussed in Chapter 6 of Volume 1.
Annona muricata L. is known as soursop in English and guanábana in most
Spanish-speaking countries. It is also known as catoche (Venezuela), zapote
agrio, zapote de viejas or cabeza de negro (Mexico), guayabano (Philippines),
nangka belanda zuurzak or sisrsak (Indonesia), thurian-khaak (Thailand), sitaphal
(India), fruta de conde, graviola, jaca do Pará (Brazil), nona sri kaya or durian
belanda (Malaysia) and corossol epineux (France).
The synonyms for Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill. are R. orthopetala A. DC.
or R. deliciosa Saff ., R. pulcherrima A. DC. and Annona mucosa Jacq. (Sousa,
2008). Other names are biribá, fruta da condessa or beribá (Brazil) (Manica,
2000), anona babosa or zambo (Mexico), anón (Peru), chirimoya (Ecuador),
1

2 Chapter 1
mulato (Colombia), cachiman cochon or cachiman montagne (Guadalupe),
anón cimarrón (Puerto Rico), anonillo (Panama) and candongo (Dominican
Republic).
Area of origin and distribution
Soursop is the most tropical of and produces the largest fruit among the
Annona species. The Caribbean is the area of origin, although soursop was
distributed very early to the warm lowlands of eastern and western Africa and
to south-east China. It is commonly found on subsistence farms in south-east
Asia, and was established very early in the Paciﬁ c islands.
Soursop is considered well suited to processing and for use in local markets
for fresh consumption. It is grown extensively in Mexico, from Culiacan to
Chiapas, and from Veracruz to the Yucatan Peninsula in the Gulf region. Large
orchards are seen in this region, with a total of more than 6000 ha being grown.
Venezuela has around 4000 ha, Brazil more than 2000 ha and Peru almost
500 ha. Colombia and Ecuador have also developed some modern orchards in
the last few years for the local fruit markets and for industrial use. Exports of
fresh fruit are very low.
Rollinia originated in the forests of the Brazilian Amazon in the states of
Acre, Rondônia and the Antilles. It has been spread throughout Brazil and
other South American countries, as well as Florida (Manica, 2000; Donadio
et al., 2002). This species, apparently cultivated since pre-Columbian times, is
not widely cultivated for commercial purposes; rather, it occurs in backyard
orchards or small plantings.
ECOLOGY
Soil
Soursop, as with most Annona species, is capable of growing in a wide range
of soil types, from sandy soil to clay loams (Pinto et al., 2005). Nevertheless,
higher yields occur on more well-drained sandy to sandy loam soils. Drainage
is essential to avoid root rot. A. glabra is of interest as a rootstock because of
its tolerance to ﬂ ooded soils. Soursop can withstand some drought, but will
experience ﬂ ower abscission. The ideal soil pH is 5–6.5.
Rollinia also prefers well-drained deep soils with a good content of organic
matter but it can grow in poor acid soils high in exchangeable aluminum. The
tree can withstand periodic ﬂ ooding (Sousa, 2008).

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 3
Climate
Rainfall
Rainfall and high humidity during the peak ﬂ owering season greatly enhance
fruit production by preventing desiccation of stigmas, prolonging their
receptive period, and increasing fruit set and early fruit growth. Under very
rainy conditions, as occurs in parts of Costa Rica, soursop has many leaf and
fruit disease problems and is not normally grown commercially. In Colombia,
soursop will grow successfully under rainfall conditions that can consist of
two rainy seasons a year or just one. The alternating rainy and dry seasons
have a positive eff ect on ﬂ ower initiation. In addition, dry periods favor
some leaf fall that results in new vegetative growth. Well-distributed yearly
precipitation of 500–1500 mm results in adequate production, depending on
its distribution. Yields are low when the rainfall is less than 500 mm (Duarte
1997; SCUC, 2006).
Rollinia grows in hot, humid climates where a short dry period can occur,
but in many cases monthly rainfall can be as high as 300 mm during the rainy
season. It probably tolerates heavy rainfall areas better than the other fruit-
producing species of this family. It needs at least 1500 mm of rainfall, and in
many areas in the Amazon valley it will grow with more than 2700–3000 mm
(Donadio et al., 2002).
Temperature
Temperature is a major limiting factor to production, with frost killing young
trees while older trees show some tolerance. Soursop is the least tolerant of
the Annona species (15–25°C mean minimum). Donadio et al., (2002) has
reported that Rollinia can withstand mild frosts in the Jaboticabal area of
Brazil, where the plant will defoliate in the winter. Soursop grows best under
average temperatures of 25–28°C. It can be grown at elevations of up to
1000 m in the tropics and subtropics, as long as winter temperatures do not
drop below 15°C. The temperature range for Rollinia is 1–2°C higher than for
soursop, and it prefers the hot, humid tropics. Poor pollination, a frequent
problem with all Annona species, occurs with high temperatures (30°C) and
low humidity (30% relative humidity [RH]), even with hand pollination.
Lower temperatures (25°C) and high humidity (80% RH) greatly improve
pollination.
Light and photoperiod
Light penetration to the base of vigorous trees with a dense canopy in close
spacing can be 2% of full sunlight, and there is very little fruit set. The soursop
plant also tends to have a conic upright form. Pruning practices and spacing
need to be adjusted to ensure light penetration. No photoperiod responses have
been reported for any Annona species.

4 Chapter 1
Wind
The soft wood of the trees makes them susceptible to wind damage and limb
breakage. Wind may also be partially responsible for the penetration of collar-
rot organisms. Productivity can be improved by windbreaks and under-tree
sprinkling to raise the RH above 60%.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Tree
The soursop is a small, evergreen tree that is slender and upright or low-
branching and bushy. It grows to heights of 4.5–9 m. Glossy, dark-green
leaves are alternate, simple and entire, with an obovate to elliptic shape, and
are 12.7–20 cm long (Fig. 1.1). The leaves emit a strong odour when crushed.
Fig. 1.1. The leaves and ﬂ ower of soursop.

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 5
Rollinia generally reaches 6–10 m in height, but can grow as high as 20
m with a trunk diameter of 60 cm. The wood is soft, and the round or conic
canopy is formed by branches that tend to grow vertically with laterals forming
at their bases. The plant is semi-deciduous, with alternate oblong or elliptical
oblong leaves, 12–20 cm long and 8–10 cm wide with an acuminated apices
base. The leaves are leathery and the petioles are 6–12 mm long. Flowers occur
once a year after leaf fall.
Flowers
The ﬂ owers of Annona species are hermaphroditic and are produced singly
or in small clusters on the current season’s growth, although ﬂ owers arising
in ‘cushions’ from old wood are not uncommon. All lateral buds can have up
to two vegetative buds and three ﬂ ower buds. Soursop lateral buds are exposed
in the leaf axil (Fig. 1.1), while the lateral buds of atemoya, cherimoya and
sweetsop are normally ‘buried’ (subpetiolar). Adventitious buds can arise at
any point on the trunk. New ﬂ owers continue to appear toward the apex of the
shoot as ﬂ owers produced earlier at the basal portions mature.
Soursop ﬂ owers are pale yellow and 2.5–4 cm long, with three thick, ﬂ eshy
petals and three smaller inner petals alternating with the outer petals (Fig.
1.1). They have a peculiar odor. Defoliation of A. muricata manually or with
ethephon spray promotes lateral branch growth and induces additional ﬂ ower
formation near the apex of the branches. Rollinia ﬂ owers are solitary or form
small clusters on the current season’s growth (Moncur, 1988). They have three
sepals and six petals. The external petals have the form of wings and give the
ﬂ ower the appearance of a propeller (Fig. 1.2A). They form a tubular structure
at their junction in the center of the ﬂ ower (Villachica et al., 1996).
Annona species generally require 27–35 days for ﬂ ower-bud initiation to
anthesis. In A. squamosa, ﬂ owering can extend from 3–6 months or even longer,
with heavy peaks. Two major ﬂ owering periods occur after periods of vegetative
ﬂ ushes, with the second peak coinciding with the onset of the monsoon season
in India (Kumar et al., 1977). Flowering can occur year round with a continuous
warm climate and water availability, while harvest becomes more seasonal in
the subtropics.
Pollination and fruit set
Natural pollination
The ﬂ owers exhibit both dichogamy and a protogynous nature (Pinto et al.,
2005). This poses a serious problem in obtaining high yields. A. muricata ﬂ oral
anthesis takes place mostly between noon and 8 pm and from 4 am to 8 am,
with pollen release occurring between 4 am and 8 am (Moncur, 1988).

6 Chapter 1
Escobar and Sánchez (1992) have given a detailed description of the timing
of the pollination process, dividing it into four phases that can take between
96 and 132 h. In phase I, the ﬂ ower button opens slightly at the basal point of
contact of the outer petals. Sexual structures are whitish and stigmatic liquid
starts to become apparent and viscous, indicating the ﬂ ower is receptive. In
phase II, after 48–60 h the tips and bases of the outer petals have separated,
the ﬂ ower is more receptive since more stigmatic liquid is present, and the
stamens become yellow, normally in the morning as the ﬂ ower reaches its ﬁ nal
size. In phase III, after another 24–48 h, the outer petals are semi-open and
have a yellow-greenish color and more stigmatic liquid. The stamens have a
dark-yellow color and the pollen is viable. Phase IV is reached 24 h later, when
the outer petals are completely open and have acquired a sulfur color. Stigmatic
liquid becomes less viscous and the ﬂ ower is still receptive. The anthers are now
cream in color and release viable pollen. The inner petals do not open, but are
slightly separated in phases III and IV. After this all the petals, stamens and
stigmata fall in 12–24 h, with the calyx, receptacle and peduncle remaining
attached.
Natural pollination in soursop is complex and in most cases results in very
low fruit set and yields, with wind- and self-pollination being low (1.5%). The
nitidulid beetles (Carpophilus and Uroporus spp.) are considered important
pollinators of Annona ﬂ owers, although no signiﬁ cant eff ect has been observed
from their presence in some cases. These beetles breed very fast in the remains
of fruit, so it is recommended to maintain the rotting fruit attractant. Some
reports have indicated that the presence of three nitidulid beetles per ﬂ ower can
increase fruit set by 25% (SCUC, 2006).
Fig. 1.2.Rollinia ﬂ owers (A) and fruit (B).

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 7
In the case of Rollinia, the ﬂ owers are also protogynous and the two female
and male phases do not overlap to allow for self-pollination (Moncur, 1988).
The petals open only slightly during the female stage. Insects are attracted by
the scent, but nectar is not produced. Later on, the male-stage ﬂ owers open
widely and insects forage for the pollen. All of this leads to poor fruit set. In
Brazil, four species of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) pollinate the ﬂ owers with only
32% fruit set (Morton, 1987).
Hand pollination
Hand pollination is used to overcome poor pollination. Hand pollination is
often very effi cient, resulting in signiﬁ cant economic returns from the higher
fruit set and larger and more symmetrical fruit. Hand pollination has also
proven to be eff ective in Rollinia (Moncur, 1988). The pollen grains of ﬂ owers
appearing early in a ﬂ owering season have thick walls and are high in starch,
germinate poorly and give poor fruit set. The pollen of later ﬂ owers shows a
high proportion of individual pollen grains without starch grains, and these
germinate well.
Pollen is obtained from opened ﬂ owers collected between 4 and 5 pm when
the sacs have turned from white to cream. Flowers on thin branches or at the
end of such branches should be harvested for pollen collection. Pollen can be
obtained directly from picked ﬂ owers held in a paper bag or cardboard box, not
a sealed container, at phase IV. Flowers picked at phase III will release pollen
the next morning. Pollen from both stages can then be mixed for use. When
the ﬂ owers are shaken over a shallow tray or in a plastic jar, the stamens and
pollen separate and the pollen will stick to the jar walls. The pollen is then
transferred to a small container. Pollen obtained in the afternoon can be held in
a refrigerator for use the next morning. The moist pollen is applied to ﬂ owers in
phase III or IV using a hair brush or even by rubbing the pollen on the stigma
with an index ﬁ nger. Some people remove one of the inner petals to make it
easier to apply the pollen. Flowers can be tagged to keep control of the process.
Pollination is performed between 6 and 10 am, and earlier if the days are hot
and dry.
Success in hand pollination is sometimes variable, being less successful on
very humid overcast days and with young, vigorous trees. About 150 ﬂ owers
can be pollinated by a skilled laborer in 1 h with a success rate of 80–100%.
Flowers for hand pollination should preferably be taken from strong branches
at the center of the canopy of trees older than 4 years.
Growth regulators for fruit set
Hand pollination in commercial orchards is tedious, time-consuming and
costly. Attempts have been made to use growth regulators to regulate fruit set,
with considerable variations in response. Auxin-induced fruit grow very slowly
with less fruit drop, while gibberellic acid promotes fruit set and growth rate;
however, it does not assist in post-set retention (Yang, 1988).

8 Chapter 1
Fruit
The soursop fruit is a syncarp that varies from less than 0.4 kg to more than
4.5 kg, with some fruits reaching 12 kg. The size depends on genotype, extent
of pollination and fertilization. A normal fruit is generally heart-shaped to
oval (Fig. 1.3), but poor pollination results in unfertilized ovules that lead to
small, distorted, irregular shapes. The skin is dark green with many recurved,
soft spines. The ﬂ esh is juicy and white with a cottony texture, and contains
many dark brown seeds that are about 2 cm long. The pulp has an agreeable
sub-acid ﬂ avor with a distinct aroma. Soursop produces fruit throughout the
year, but in most areas peak production is during summer and early autumn,
sometimes with a secondary peak in the early spring.
The Rollinia fruit is also a syncarp that generally weighs from 200 to 1000 g
(Fig. 1.2B) and sometimes up to 4 kg. The ﬂ avor is like that of the soursop, but
it is sweeter and less acidic; the aroma is also appreciated by consumers. The
weight of 1000 seeds is about 315 g. The ripe fruit normally has a yellow skin
and the pulp is cream or white, mucilaginous, soft and juicy.
Fruit growth shows the typical sigmoidal curve, with maturation occurring
in 16–24 weeks, depending on the species and growing conditions (Fig. 1.4).
Low humidity (<60% RH) and temperature (<13°C) near fruit maturity can
increase the severity of fruit-skin russeting, as well as delaying fruit maturation.
High temperatures can cause premature fruit ripening and fermentation of the
fruit.
CULTIVAR DEVELOPMENT
Genetics, cytogenetics and breeding
The chromosome numbers of most Annona species are 2n = 14 or 16. A
desirable hybrid would be between cherimoya and soursop. This would
combine the larger fruit size and acidity of soursop with the sweetness, ﬂ avor
and texture of cherimoya. Attempts to cross the soursop with cherimoya,
ilama, bullock’s heart or sweetsop have not been successful, and may reﬂ ect a
considerable genetic distance of soursop from the other species (Samuel et al.,
1991).
Problems with breeding
Existing commercial cultivars show considerable variation in growth, fruit
set, fruit size and quality. No single variety has all the desirable characteristics.
The length of the juvenile period varies, with earliest production occurring

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 9
Time from Anthesis (weeks)
)
Fig. 1.3. Fruit of soursop, sweetsop and atemoya.
Fig. 1.4. Increase in fruit diameter from anthesis for soursop, sweetsop and
cherimoyas. (After Thakur and Singh, 1964; Worrel et al., 1994.)

10 Chapter 1
in 2 years and full production in 5–6 years. This juvenile period is extremely
variable with scions on seedling rootstocks. The seedling rootstocks are
derived from extremely heterogeneous open-pollinated seeds. Breeding
programs have focused on selections from seedling populations. Early
maturity, better fruit appearance and, in the subtropics, greater cold tolerance
are the most frequent objectives.
Cultivar development
Except for cherimoya and atemoya, very few named clonal cultivars have
been developed among the Annona species, since most plantings have been of
seedlings. In many Latin American countries, ﬁ eld selections have been made
separating the sweet (actually less acid) from the acid fruited types. There are
also diff erences in fruit form, color and consistency (juicy and hard). These
two groups are recognized in Colombia, with the sweet type having fruits of
about 1 kg, while the acid can have fruits of up to 5 kg. Producers in Costa
Rica selected some superior types that were given names and are now being
propagated clonally. Selections have also been made in Brazil, where cultivars
(‘Morada’, ‘Lisa’ and ‘Blanca’) have also been introduced from Colombia. Of
these, ‘Morada’ has the highest yields per tree (up to 40 kg) and the largest size
of fruit (3–10 kg). It also has ﬁ rm pulp, a sub-acid ﬂ avor and is more tolerant
to fruit and stem borers, which makes it the most desirable cultivar (Pinto
and da Silva, 1996). Brazilian selections include ‘Cerradinha,’ ‘Ibrimirina,’
‘Gigante de Alagoas’ and ‘FAO II.’
Rollinia has apparently seen no breeding programs, although some selections
have been made in Brazil by the native tribes. Some selections produce fruit that
weigh 4 kg (Clement et al., 1982).
CULTURAL PRACTICES
Propagation
The Annona species are usually propagated by seed. The recalcitrant seeds
rapidly lose viability (6 months) and should be sown as soon as possible
after removal from the fruit. Seeds can take up to 30 days to germinate and
gibberellic acid signiﬁ cantly increase germination and enhance seedling
growth. Annona seedlings require at least 3–4 years to bear fruit (Sanewski,
1991).
Clonal propagation by cuttings, layering, inarching, grafting and budding
have been tried for many of the Annona species. In some reports, grafting is
superior to budding in percentage takes and subsequent growth, with side-whip
and cleft graft techniques giving the best results. Escobar and Sánchez (1992)

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 11
found patch budding to be the best, with an 82.5% success rate for soursop,
while the side graft was second with lower success rates with A. muricata, A.
reticulata and A. montana. Cleft graft and inverted ‘T’ budding did very poorly
for all four rootstocks. The success of cleft and side grafting or inverted ‘T’ and
patch budding was practically zero with A. squamosa. The branches should be
defoliated 1–2 weeks before scion wood is cut to induce bud swelling, and petioles
should be left on the branch. There are considerable graft incompatibilities
among Annona species.
Rollinia is normally propagated by seeds that germinate in about 1 month.
Seedling growth is very fast during the initial years. In some cases, grafting has
been used successfully (Sousa, 2008).
Field preparation
A soil sample should be taken 4–6 months before planting to determine lime
requirements and soil nutrient levels. Soil phosphorus can also be adjusted
at this time or in the planting hole. Minimal tillage can be achieved with a
2 m-wide band cultivated where the trees are to be planted. Drainage should
be installed at this time to avoid ﬂ ooding, with either contour or subsurface
drains. Windbreaks should be established prior to transplanting.
Transplanting and spacing
Transplanting should be done at the beginning of the wet season if there are
seasonal dry periods and no irrigation facilities. In the subtropics, planting
should not be performed if there is a risk of frost. Plants should have attained
a height of 30–50 cm at transplanting, with the union of grafted or budded
plants placed approximately 15 cm above the ground. Trees should be
irrigated as soon as possible after transplanting, and wind and sun guards are
sometimes required.
Soursop trials suggest spacings of 4–4.6 u 6–7 m do not aff ect growth or
interfere with cultural practices. Spacings of 6–7 u 6–8 m are also used. A
triangular layout is recommended whatever planting distance is selected, with
the rows running north to south to avoid shading. For Rollinia, a 6 u 6 m or
7 u 7 m spacing is normally used (Vargas et al., 1999).
Irrigation practices
Annona species are grown without irrigation in many areas where rainfall is
well distributed. Except for pond apple (A. glabra), most Annona species can
stand periods of drought and prefer rather dry conditions. Adequate soil

12 Chapter 1
moisture is required to encourage vegetative growth, however, since ﬂ owering
occurs on new growth. The amount and frequency of irrigation is determined
by experience for a particular location and soil type. Water stress should be
prevented during ﬂ owering, fruit set and fruit development, as fruit are more
sensitive than leaves.
High soil moisture to increase humidity during the ﬂ owering season may
prolong stigma receptivity and fruit set and growth. Low-rise sprinklers beneath
the tree canopy during ﬂ owering can increase humidity. The stomata of Annona
species respond to RH not water stress. They will continue to lose water if the
humidity is greater than 80%, making maintenance of soil moisture crucial
(Marler et al., 1994).
Annona species, especially soursop and sweetsop, can show hardening of the
fruit pulp with brownish lumps apparently caused by the sudden movement
of water into the fruit (George et al., 1987). The eff ect is enhanced by boron
deﬁ ciency. This disorder is reported as being common in north-eastern Brazil
under conditions with limited or no irrigation. As in most crops, any water stress
slows plant growth and decreases fruit size. Water quality is also important.
Sodium chloride can negatively aff ect growth, especially at a leaf concentration
of 0.3% sodium and can cause leaf burn and defoliation. Elevated levels of
chlorine and boron in the water are phytotoxic to fruit and leaves, and are
diffi cult to control (Pinto and da Silva, 1996).
Pruning
Training of trees begins in the nursery and pruning should continue after
transplanting. It is desirable to train the tree to a single trunk up to a height
of about 90 cm, after which it should be headed back to produce lateral
branches. The lateral branches should be spaced 15–25 cm above each other
and allowed to grow in diff erent directions to develop a good scaff old. After
about 2 m, trees are left to grow naturally. Pruning is carried out when the
trees are dormant. For heavy fruit-bearing trees, pruning involves the removal
of lower limbs that touch the ground and branches in the center that may be
rubbing against each other. The aim is to allow sunlight access to the center of
the tree.
The soursop will, by nature, usually produce a symmetrically conical tree
and is well adapted to the central-leader system. It has an erect habit of growth,
and thus height has to be controlled if trees are to remain short to make harvest
and other tree-management practices easier. An alternative is to develop a
mushroom-shaped tree that is topped at 2–2.6 m. The fruit in this system are
borne on the lateral branches and hang down for ease of harvest. This process
starts with formation pruning, where plants are topped at 60–80 cm once they
start growing following transplanting. After topping, three or four primary

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 13
branches are selected so that they are evenly spaced around the trunk and care
is taken that they do not arise too close together so that no weak zone occurs.
These primary branches can be topped at about 50 cm from their origin to
induce secondary branching. When properly trained, little pruning is required
except to thin out poorly placed and weak branches. To contain trees within a
certain space allocation and height limitation, the longest branches extending
horizontally and vertically may be pruned annually, preferably immediately
after harvest. Plants should not be allowed to grow above 2.5–4 m, depending
on the formation method used.
Diseased or insect-infested branches should be removed periodically, as
should branches growing in the wrong direction or with undesirable sprouting.
Any excess vegetation inside the canopy should be removed to allow greater light
penetration and ventilation. Rejuvenation by heavy pruning is occasionally
needed, but very severe pruning reduces subsequent fruiting.
Fertilization
Annona species have an indeterminate growth habit (axillary ﬂ owering) and
applying nitrogen in a somewhat excessive amount does not greatly interfere
with ﬂ oral initiation, as is the case with plants with a determinate growth
habit. However, excessive tree vigour is usually associated with reduced ﬂ ower-
ing and yields in many trees.
Fertilization starts in the nursery, with in particular nitrogen applied in
small amounts. During transplanting some fertilizer, especially phosphorus, is
added to the bottom of the hole. In the vegetative growth period prior to fruiting,
phosphorus, potassium and sometimes calcium from dolomitic rock are
usually applied. Avilán (1975) found that soursop has a high requirement for
phosphorus and potassium. According to Pinto and da Silva (1996) a 10:15:15
or 10:13:15 ratio is adequate for growth and production. The fertilizer (250
g) of any of these formulas is applied in four applications (approximately 63
g each) per tree per year, during the ﬁ rst 4 years. In the ﬁ fth and following
years, this amount is increased to 1 kg/tree applied over four applications.
Observations in Hawaii and Mexico have indicated the desirability of providing
1.3 kg of a triple-15 fertilizer formulation during the ﬁ rst year of production,
split into two applications. Each year thereafter, up to approximately the sixth
bearing year, the total amount can be increased by approximately 0.45 kg/tree/
year.
In Brazil, a recommendation of 40 g nitrogen per tree in the ﬁ rst year to 180
g in year 5 and thereafter has been made. For phosphorus, the recommendation
was none for the ﬁ rst year to 40–180 g/tree/year in year 5 and thereafter; and
for potassium, from 30–60 g/tree in the ﬁ rst year to 60–180 g/tree/year after
year 5, with the amounts being related to soil analysis results (Table 1.1).

14 Chapter 1
Another recommendation suggests that non-irrigated bearing plants should be
fertilized with 3 kg ammonium sulfate, 660 g triple superphosphate and 500 g
potassium chloride (SCUC, 2006). This is applied in three equal portions during
the year, preferably at the start, the middle and toward the end of the rainy
season. The fertilizer should be lightly incorporated into the soils around the
tree. Soursop also responds well to manure applications: either 15 kg per plant
of decomposed cow manure or 3–4 kg of decomposed poultry manure.
In cool subtropical areas, most vegetative growth takes place during the
warmer months from spring to autumn. A reduction in nitrogen during the
winter minimizes new vegetative growth in young trees that are vulnerable to
cold temperatures.
As with other perennial fruit trees, soil and plant tissue analyses are the
techniques most used to evaluate the nutritional state of the plants. Soil
sampling in adult soursop orchards should be similar to that recommended
for other crops. For leaf sampling, the recommended method depends on the
age of the plant, the position of the leaf in the canopy and on the branch and,
as with many fruit crops, whether the branches are fruiting or not. Pinto and
da Silva (1996) recommended collecting 8- to 9-month-old leaves that are free
from fertilizer or agrichemical residues. The sample should consist of about
100 leaves for every 5–7 ha. Four leaves should be obtained from each of 25
randomly selected plants. The orchard should be divided into smaller plots
according to soil characteristics. Samples should not be taken from sick or
abnormal plants. Flowering time and periods of heavy rain should be avoided.
Select plants of similar size and age, and avoid recently fertilized plants.
Normal leaf concentrations for nitrogen and potassium in Brazil are 1.6- to
2.0-times greater than those from deﬁ cient leaves. Comparing data from Avilán
(1975) and Silva and Silva (1997), there is a greater diff erence in Venezuela
than in Brazil between normal and deﬁ cient leaves with regard to nitrogen,
while the variation is less for potassium (Table 1.2).
Table 1.1. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) requirements for soursop
according to the age of the plant and the availability of soil phosphorus and
potassium (Silva and Silva, 1997).
Age (years) N (g/plant)
P-resin (g/dm
3
) K-exchangeable (g/dm
3
)
0–10 11–20 >20 0–45 46–90 >90
P
2O
5 (g/plant) K
2O (g/plant)
0–1 40 0 0 0 60 40 30
1–2 80 80 60 40 80 60 40
3–4 120 120 80 60 120 80 60
>4 180 120 80 40 180 120 60

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 15
Pest management
Diseases
A number of diseases of soursop have been reported (Table 1.3).
Anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, is the most serious
disease on soursop, particularly in areas of high rainfall and humidity
and during the wet season in dry areas. This disease causes twig dieback,
defoliation and dropping of ﬂ owers and fruit. On mature fruit, the infection
causes black lesions. Black canker (Phomopsis annonacearum) and diplodia
rot (Botryodiplodia theobromae) occur mostly on neglected trees and cause
similar symptoms of purplish to black lesions, resulting in mummiﬁ ed fruit.
Marginal leaf scorch is also caused by P. annonacearum, while B. theobromae
causes twig dieback. Diplodia rot has darker internal discoloration and
causes deeper, more extensive corky rot in fruit. Cylindrocladium fruit and leaf
spot is caused by a soil-borne fungus, C. colhounii. It can cause almost total
loss of fruit during years of persistent heavy rains. Symptoms begin with
small dark spots, primarily on the shoulders of the fruit, which spread along
the sides, enlarge, become dry and crack. Infection is skin-deep, but the fruit
become unmarketable. Control measures recommended are good orchard
sanitation with heavy mulching and lower-branch pruning to prevent
splashing of soil during heavy rainfall (Sanewski, 1991).
Table 1.2. Leaf nutrient concentration for soursop in Venezuela and Brazil.
Element Concentration
Venezuela
(Avilán, 1975)
Brazil
(Silvaet al., 1984)
Nitrogen (g/kg) Normal 17.6 25–28
Deﬁ cient 11.0 13–16
Phosphorus (g/kg) Normal 2.9 1.4
Deﬁ cient 1.1 0.6–0.7
Potassium (g/kg) Normal 26.0 26.1
Deﬁ cient 12.6 26.4
Calcium (g/kg) Normal 17.6 10.8
Deﬁ cient 10.8 4.5
Magnesium (g/kg) Normal 0.2 1.5–1.7
Deﬁ cient 0.08 1.1–1.3
Boron (mg/kg) Normal – 35–47
Deﬁ cient – 6–14

16 Chapter 1
Insects
Insect pests of soursop occur in numerous growing areas (Table 1.4). One
of the most serious insects in Mexico, Central America, Trinidad, Surinam,
Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil is the Cerconota moth, which lays its eggs on
young fruit. The emerging larvae tunnel into the pulp, causing blackened,
necrotic areas. It is not uncommon to ﬁ nd every fruit larger than 7.5 cm
infested. For this moth, the use of light traps is recommended, as well as
picking and burying fallen fruit. The use of speciﬁ c approved insecticides and
the release of parasitoid have also proven eff ective (Escobar and Sánchez,
1992). The Bephrata or Bephratelloides wasp is also widely distributed through-
out the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America and central and northern South
Table 1.3. Major diseases of soursop.
Common name Organism
Parts affected,
symptoms
Region or
country
Anthracnose Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides
(Glomerella)
Flowers, fruit, leaves,
dieback, seedling
damping off
Universal
Armillaria root rotArmillaria luteobubalinaRoots, base of trees,
decline
Australia
Bacterial wiltPseudomonas
solanacearum
Tree wilt Australia
Black canker
(diplodia rot)
Botryodiplodia
theobromae
Leaf scorch, twig
dieback, peel
blackening, graft
union rotting
Universal
Black canker Phomopsis
annonacearum
As for diplodia rot Australia
Purple blotch Phytophthora palmivoraSpots on immature
fruit, fruit drop, twig
dieback
Australia
Rust fungus Phakopsora cherimoliaeLeaves Florida
Fruit rot Gliocladium roseum Fruit India
Rhizopus rot Rhizopus stolonifer Fruit Brazil
Seedling rot Rhizoctonia solani
Cylindrocladiumspp.
Seedlings Universal

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 17
America. This wasp is considered to be the most important pest in Florida.
Considerable damage to the soursop fruit has been observed in Mexico and
Central America by the authors. The larvae infest the seeds and damage the
pulp as they bore through the ﬂ esh to emerge when the fruit matures. Control
measures include preventive spays with approved products during initial
fruit growth. For both of these insects, very good control can be obtained by
bagging the fruit using plastic bags either with holes or with the basal end
open (Escobar and Sánchez, 1992; Broglio-Micheletti et al., 2001).
The Thecla moth is widespread throughout parts of the Caribbean and in the
American tropics, but it is not considered to be as serious a pest as the Cerconota
moth and Bephrata wasp. Damage is primarily to the ﬂ owers. The larvae feed on
ﬂ ower parts, such as the perianth, stamen and stigmas, and the ﬂ owers fail to
set fruit.
Mature-green annonaceous fruit have been shown to be rarely infested by
the Mediterranean fruit ﬂ y (Ceratitis capitata) and the Oriental fruit ﬂ y (Dacus
dorsalis), but they are found occasionally in tree-ripened fruit. Bait sprays and
ﬁ eld sanitation are recommended measures to minimize fruit-ﬂ y infestation.
Fruit bagging also provides protection.
Table 1.4. Major insect pests of soursop.
Common name Organism Parts affected Country/region
Bephrata wasp
(soursop wasp)
Bephrata meculicollisFruit Mexico, Americas,
Trinidad,
Surinam
Wasp Bephratelloides
paraguayensis
Fruit Americas,
Barbados
Cerconota moth
(soursop moth)
Cerconota anonellaFruit Americas, Trinidad,
Surinam
Thecla moth Thecla ortygnus Flowers,
young fruit
Americas,
Caribbean
Banana spotting Amblypelta lutescensYoung fruit Queensland
Mealy bug Dysmicoccusspp. Stem, leaves Universal
Citrus mealy bugPlanococcus citriFruit Queensland
Southern stink bugNezara viridula Fruit Caribbean
Caribbean fruit ﬂ yAnastrepha suspensaFruit Caribbean, Mexico
Queensland fruit ﬂ yBactrocera tryoniFruit Australia
Potato leaf hopperEmpoasca fabae Leaves Caribbean
Red spider mite Several genera,
species
Leaves,
ﬂ owers
American tropics
Scale insects Saissetia coffeaeLeaves, stem Universal
Coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor,
other genera and
species
Leaves, stem Caribbean

18 Chapter 1
Mealy bugs and various species of scale insects are found universally and
usually become serious pests on neglected trees. The former is reported to be a
major pest on marketable fruit in some areas of Australia (Sanewski, 1991).
Red spider mites can become a serious problem in dry areas or during dry
seasons. Heavy infestations have been observed on soursop ﬂ owers and leaves
in the Tecomán area of Mexico during the prevailing dry period, with trees
showing heavy ﬂ ower drop.
Weed management
Problem weeds, especially grasses and twining weeds, should be controlled
before planting by cultivation and herbicides. Young trees should be protected
from weed competition by hand weeding, mulching or contact herbicides.
Shallow root systems limit the use of cultivation under the tree.
HARVESTING AND POSTHARVEST HANDLING
Harvesting season, yield and harvesting
The harvesting season is quite similar in most areas, especially for soursop
and sweetsop, diff ering only in range (Table 1.5). A major problem in
soursop cultivation is obtaining commercial yields and large fruit with a
symmetrical shape. To increase fruit set and size and achieve a better shape,
hand pollination has become an important aspect of cultivation practices in
Table 1.5. Peak harvesting seasons for soursop.
Country/region Month(s)
Caribbean Year round
Brazil, center May–September
Brazil, north-east Year round
Florida June–November
Hawaii January–October
Indonesia Year round
Mexico June–September
The Philippines June–August
Colombia Year round
Puerto Rico March–September

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 19
some areas. Rootstocks have been shown to greatly inﬂ uence yield (Sanewski,
1991).
In Hawaii, soursop yields from trees grown in a marginal ﬁ eld have shown
approximately 43 kg/tree on 4-year-old trees, increasing to 83 kg/tree on
6-year-old trees. In Paramaribo, Surinam, soursop yields of 54 kg/tree at 278
trees/ha have been reported.
Fruit is harvested when fully mature and ﬁ rm. The skin-color changes as the
fruit approaches maturity. The immature soursop fruit is dark green and shiny,
losing its sheen and becoming slightly yellowish-green on reaching maturity.
Determining harvest time by dating ﬂ oral anthesis is impractical as ﬂ owering
occurs over many months. If a rigid hand-pollination protocol is used, with
removal of naturally pollinated fruit, days from anthesis can be used.
Fruit is hand harvested and put into lug boxes or baskets. Harvesting is
more diffi cult and time-consuming for soursop, because the trees are generally
taller than those of other Annona species and the fruit are much larger. In
large soursop orchards, mechanical harvesting aids are feasible and accelerate
handling.
Rollinia fruit turn yellow at maturity and should be harvested before they
start to change color or as the process starts, but before they are completely
ripe. Ripe fruit are soft and diffi cult to handle. The fruit should be harvested very
carefully by cutting the peduncle with a sharp knife or pruning shears. Yields
can vary from 25 to 60 fruit/tree/year for 5-year-old trees, while 15-year-
old trees can produce 100–150 fruits/year (Vargas et al., 1999). Harvesting
in Brazil is normally done between January and June, 4 months after ﬂ ower
anthesis.
Postharvest handling
Harvested fruit should be handled with care to prevent bruising of the
skin. This is especially important for fruit that are marketed for fresh
consumption. Firm soursop fruit need to be held after harvest for 4–7 days
at room temperature, with optimum quality processing occurring 5–6 days
after softening begins (Paull, 1983). The skin of the ripening soursop fruit
will gradually turn dark brown to black, but the ﬂ esh is unspoiled. Storage
temperatures below 15°C cause chilling injuries and a failure to develop
full ﬂ avor. Pre-cooling of fruit is essential to help extend the shelf life.
Protuberances on the skin of fully ripe Rollinia are easily injured and they turn
brown to almost black, making the fruit unattractive (Morton, 1987).
When processed, soursop fruit are stored on racks in the shade and
inspected daily. All fruit that yield to ﬁ nger pressure are removed for processing.
Slightly immature fruit will ripen but they lack the full ﬂ avor and aroma, and
nectars prepared from the puree of such fruit have a ﬂ at taste. Pulp-recovery
percentages have been reported to range from 62% to 85.5% (Paull, 1982).

20 Chapter 1
Diff erences in recovery percentages are caused by diff erences in equipment,
extraction methods, cultivar and cultural practices, including environmental
inﬂ uences. The number of seeds per fruit also inﬂ uences pulp recovery.
Compositional changes during fruit ripening
All Annona species bear climacteric fruit. Soursop respiration begins to
increase within a day of harvest and reaches its peak at days 6–8. Ethylene
production is initiated approximately 48 h after initiation of the respiration
rise, and reaches its peak at about the same time as the respiration peak
reaches a plateau (Paull, 1983). Total soluble solids increase from around
10% to 16% during the 3 days of ripening. The major titratable acids are
malic and citric acids. Days 6 and 7 are considered to be the optimum edible
stage and coincide with the peak of ethylene production.
UTILIZATION
Soursop fruit is marketed fresh to local markets. This fruit, of all the Annona
species, has the best processing potential because of the excellent ﬂ avor
characteristic of the pulp and high recovery from large fruit. Unfortunately,
soursop has to be hand peeled and cored, an expensive and time-consuming
operation. The fragility of the skin and the fruit’s irregular shape and softness
limit machine processing.
Soursop pulp is viscous and requires dilution to produce a desirable nectar
viscosity; however, this diluted product is ﬂ at and weak. To overcome this
dilution eff ect, the pH needs to be adjusted to 3.7 by adding citric acid and
sugar to 15% total soluble solids to create a desirable balance between acidity,
sweetness and ﬂ avor. Unsweetened and sweetened soursop pulp processed
below 93°C show no changes in organoleptic properties. Freeze preservation
produces a higher-quality product. Enriched pulp, sweetened or unsweetened,
can be processed and stored frozen for re-manufacture as various products or
reconstituted directly by the consumer. Puree can be used to prepare an iced
soursop drink or mixed with other juices, or it can be made into sherbets and
gelatin dishes. Soursop is a good source of potassium, riboﬂ avin and niacin
(Table 1.6).
Rollinia pulp is normally eaten fresh, though in some parts of Brazil it is
used to make a fermented wine. Sugar can be added to the pulp to make some
desserts. The seeds have insecticidal properties (Vargas et al., 1999).

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 21
FURTHER READING
Bayogan, E.R. and Paull, R.E. (2008) Soursop Annona muricata. In: Janick, J. and Paull,
R.E. (eds) The Encyclopedia of Fruit and Nuts. CAB International, Wallingford, UK,
pp. 42–46.
Campbell, C.W. (1985) Cultivation of fruits of the Annonaceae in Florida. Proceedings of
the Tropical Region of the American Society for Horticultural Science 29, 68–70.
Coelho de Lima, M.A. and Alves, R.E. (2011) Soursop (Annona muricata L). In: Yahia,
E.M. (ed) Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Volume
4: Mangosteen to White Sapote. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, pp. 363–
391.
Love, L., Paull, R.E. (2011) Rollina. University of Hawaii at Manoa, College of Tropical
Agriculture and Human Resources. Fruit and Nuts Publication F_N-21. Available
from: http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/F_N-21.pdf. Accessed August
20, 2011.
Table 1.6. Composition of 100 g edible portion of soursop
(Wenkam, 1990) and Rollinia (Collazos et al., 1975, cited by
Villachica et al., 1996).
Constituent Soursop Rollinia
Proximate
Water (g) 80.10 85.0
Energy 247 kJ 53.0 cal
Protein (g) 0.69 1.1
Fat (g) 0.39 0.4
Carbohydrate (g) 18.23 12.9
Fiber (g) 0.95 1.2
Ash (g) 0.58 0.6
Minerals
Calcium (mg) 9.00 –
Iron (mg) 0.82 –
Magnesium (mg) 22.00 –
Phosphorus (mg) 29.00 –
Potassium (mg) 320.00 –
Sodium (mg) 22.00 –
Vitamins
Ascorbic acid (mg) 16.40 3.40
Thiamine (mg) 0.07 0.07
Riboﬂ avin (mg) 0.12 0.23
Niacin (mg) 1.52 0.79
Vitamin A 0 0
Seed/skin (%) 34 –

22 Chapter 1
Marler, J.E., George, A.P., Nissen, R.J. and Andersen, P.J. (1994) Miscellaneous
tropical fruits – annonas. In: Schaff er, B.C. and Andersen, P.C. (eds) Handbook of
Environmental Physiology of Fruit Crops. Volume II: Subtropical and Tropical Crops.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 200–206.
Pinto, A.C. (2002) Soursop. In: Crisóstomo, L.A. and Nuamov, A. (managing eds) and
Johnston, A.E. (ed) Fertilizing for High Yield and Quality Tropical Fruits of Brazil.
International Potash Institute Bulletin, IPI, Horgen, Switzerland, pp. 202–217.
REFERENCES
Alvarez-Garcia, L.A. (1949) Anthracnose of the Annonaceae in Puerto Rico. University
of Puerto Rico, Journal of Agriculture 33, 27–43.
Avilán, R.L. (1975) Efecto de la omisión de los macronutrientes en el desarrollo y
composición química de la guanábana (Annona muricata L.) cultivada en soluciones
nutritivas. Agronomía Tropical (Maracay) 25, 73–79.
Broglio-Micheletti, S.M.F., Agra, A.G.S. de Melo., Barbosa, G.V.S. and Gomes, F.L. (2001)
Controle de Cerconota anonella (Sepp.) (Lep.: Oecophoridae) e de Bephratelloides
pomorum (Fab.) (Hym.: Eurytomidae) em frutos de graviola (Annona muricata L.).
Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura 23, 722–725.
Clement, C.R., Mueller, C.H. and Chavez Flores, W.B. (1982) Recursos genéticos de
espécies frutiferas nativas da Amazonía Brasileira. Acta Amazonica 12, 677–685.
Donadio, L.C., Moro, F.V. and Servidone, A.A. (2002) Frutas Brasileiras. Editora Novos
Talentos, Jaboticabal, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Duarte, O. (1997) Guanábana. Boletín de Divulgación, Escuela Agrícola Panamericana,
El Zamorano, Honduras.
Escobar, W. and Sánchez, L.A. (1992) Guanábano. Manual de Asistencia Técnica No.
57. Sección Nacional de Frutícolas, Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA),
Colombia.
George, A.P., Nissen, R.J. and Brown, B.I. (1987) The Custard Apple. Queensland
Agricultural Journal 113, 287–297.
Hernández, M.C.L.V. and Nieto-Angel, D. (1997) Diagnostico Técnico y Comercial de
la Guanábana en México. Memorias del Congreso Internacional de Anonáceas,
Universidad Autonoma Chapingo (UAC), Chapingo, México.
Kumar, R., Hoda, M.N. and Singh, D.K. (1977) Studies on the ﬂ oral biology of custard
apple (Annona squamosa Linn). Indian Journal of Horticulture 34, 252–256.
Laprode, S.C. (1991) Variación estacional de nutrimentos foliares em guanabana
(Annona muricata L.). Revista Corbana 15, 6–10.
Manica, I. (2000) Frutas Nativas, Silvestres e Exoticas 1. Cinco Continentes Editora, Porto
Alegre, Brasil.
Mansour, K.M. (1997) Current status of Annonaceae in Egypt. Mesﬁ n Newsletter 1, 5–10.
Marler, J.E., George, A.P., Nissen, R.J. and Andersen, P.J. (1994) Miscellaneous
tropical fruits – annonas. In: Scheaff er, B.C. and Andersen, P.C. (eds) Handbook of
Environmental Physiology of Fruit Crops, Vol II. Subtropical and Tropical Crops. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 200–206.
Morton, J.F. (1987) Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resource Systems Inc., Winterville,
North Carolina, pp. 88–90.

Annonas: Soursop and Rollinia 23
Nakasone, H.Y. (1972) Production feasibility for soursop. Hawaii Farm Science 21, 10–
11.
Paull, R.E. (1982) Postharvest variation in composition of soursop (Annona muricata
L.) fruit in relation to respiration and ethylene production. Journal of the American
Society for Horticultural Science 107, 582–585.
Paull, R.E. (1983) Changes in organic acids, sugars, and headspace volatiles during
fruit ripening of soursop (Annona muricata L.). Journal of the American Society for
Horticultural Science 108, 931–934.
Pinto, A.C. de Q. and da Silva, E.M. (1996) Graviola Para Exportação, Aspectos Técnicos da
Produção. Embrapa-SPI, Brasília.
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de C., Alves. R.E. and Kinpara, D.I. (2005) Annona species. International Centre for
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Series Q190031. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane,
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A.R., Souza, I.V.B., Morais, O.M. and Rebouças, T.N.H. (eds.) Anonáceas, Produção e
Mercado. Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia, Vitória da Conquista, Bahia,
pp. 118–137.
Silva, H.A., da Silva, A.Q., Cavalcante, A.T. and Malavolta, E. (1984) Composição
mineral das folhas de algunas fruteiras do Nordeste. Anais do 7mo. Congresso
Brasileiro de Fruticultura (Florianópolis), pp. 320–325.
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of Fruit and Nuts. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 68–70.
Thakur, D.R. and Singh, R.N. (1964) Studies on pollen morphology, pollination and fruit
set in some annonas. Indian Journal of Horticulture 22, 10–17.
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Reviewers). (1999) Frutales y Condimentarias del Trópico Húmedo. CURLA; PDBL;
AFE/COHDEFOR; DICTA; SETCO; PROFORFITH, La Ceiba, Honduras.
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(Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baillón), In: Frutales y Hortalizas Promisorias de la Amazonía.
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24.
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ripening of soursop (Annona muricata L.) fruit. Scientia Horticulturae
57, 7–15.

24 Chapter 1
Yang, C.S. (1988) Application of plant growth regulators on Annona culture. In: Lin,
H.S., Chang, L.R. and Lin, J.H. (eds) The Application of Plant Growth Regulators on
Horticultural Crops. Symposium Proceedings. Special Publication No. 12, Taichung
District Agricultural Improvement Station, Changhua, Taiwan (Chinese, English
summary), pp. 305–320.

© Paull and Duarte 2012. Tropical Fruits, 2nd Edition, Volume II 25
(R.E. Paull and O. Duarte)
BREADFRUIT, JACKFRUIT, CHEMPEDAK
AND
MARANG
The family Moraceae includes the ﬁ g and mulberry. The genus Artocarpus,
which includes breadfruit, jackfruit, chempedak and marang, contains about
50 species with milky latex. Most species are native to Asia, and 15 produce
edible starchy fruit that are frequently staples. The genus name comes from
the Greek words ‘artos’ (bread) and ‘karpos’ (fruit). The three most important
species are the more tropical breadfruit A. altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg (syn A.
communis, Foster; A. incisus L.; Communis incisa), the jackfruit A. heterophyllus
Lam. (syn A. integer [Thumb.] Merrill; A. integrifolius) and its close relative
chempedak A. integrifolia L., (syn. A. polyphema Persoon; A. champeden [Lour.]
Stokes).
Other Artocarpus species are also grown: A. odoratissimus (marang), A.
camansi (breadnut) Blanco, A. lakoocha Roxb. (monkey jack) and A. mariannensis
Trécul. (dugdug). Species with edible fruit that are not commercially grown,
but are collected and consumed in their native range, include A. anisophyllus
Miq., A. chama Buch-Ham., A. fulvicortex Jarrett, A. hypargyreus Hance, A.
kemando Miq., A. lanceifolius Roxb. subsp. lanceifolius and clementis Merr.,
A.
nitidus Trécul., A. rigidus Blume, A. sarawakensis Jarrett., A. sericicarpus Jarrett,
A. styracifolius Pierre, A. tonkinensis, A. Chevalier and A. vrieseanus Miq. (Love,
2008).
BREADFRUIT
Introduction
Breadfruit originates from New Guinea and possibly the Moluccas, with
numerous varieties spread throughout the islands of the Paciﬁ c. It has
been distributed throughout the humid tropics since the late 1700s. The
tree was the reason behind Captain Bligh’s voyage to Tahiti and the mutiny
on The Bounty (Spary and White, 2004). In many regions, the seeded and
2

26 Chapter 2
seedless cultivars have diff erent common names. Seeded breadfruits are
called breadnut (English), kelur or kelor (Indo-Malaya) and kamansi or pakok
(Philippines), while seedless are sukun (Indo-Malaya) and rimas (Philippines).
Other names include arbre à pain (French), sake (Thai and Vietnamese), árbol
del pan or panapen (Spanish), fruta pao (Portuguese) and ulu, uru, kuru, uto, mei,
lemae and mos (Paciﬁ c islands).
Two closely related species that possibly contributed to breadfruit are
breadnut A. camansi Blanco from New Guinea, the Indo-Malay region and
possibly the Philippines; and dugdug A. mariannensis Trécul from western
Micronesia. Breadnut is a wild ancestor of the breadfruit indigenous to the
lowlands of New Guinea, where it grows in ﬂ ooded riverbanks, secondary and
primary growth forest, and freshwater swamps, and in cultivation. It may
also be indigenous to the Moluccas and possibly the Philippines. Dugdug is
morphologically very distinct from A. altilis and grows wild in Palau, Guam
and the Northern Mariana Islands. Introgression between the two species has
occurred in Micronesia and there are a number of hybrid varieties (Ragone,
1997).
Breadfruit is principally grown as a subsistence crop in most areas of the
world, with Paciﬁ c and Caribbean islands being the major production areas.
Fruit range from 0.2 to 4.5 kg, depending on the cultivar. Yields vary from as
low as 50–150 to as many as 700 fruit/tree, with an estimated yield of 16–50
t/ha based on a density of 100 trees/ha. Canopy volume is a good measure of
the potential yield.
Ecology
Soil
A variety of soils with suffi cient depth and good drainage are suitable. Soils
with high levels of organic matter and fertility are recommended. On Paciﬁ c
islands, breadfruit does grow on shallow coralline soils, demonstrating its
considerable varietal adaptability.
Climate
Regular rainfalls of 1500–3000 mm/year and humidity of 70–90% are
preferred. Rainfall is necessary for vegetative growth, ﬂ owering and fruit
growth, with a bimodal pattern preferred with a 3–6 month dry season. The
tree is sensitive to chilling, with no growth at temperatures of 5°C or lower.
The tree is well suited to hot, humid, tropical lowlands, with temperatures of
up to 38°C and altitude below 1500 m. Best production takes place below 650
m in the tropics. Full sun is required, and no photoperiodic events have been
noted.

Breadfruit, Jackfruit, Chempedak and Marang 27
General characteristics
Tree
This fast-growing evergreen tree can grow up to 30 m in humid and wet
areas, and can live for as long as 90 years. The tree is partially deciduous
under drought or during the dry part of a monsoon climate. The alternate
and ovate leaves, which are 20–75 cm in length, are dark green with none
to as many as 13 lobes (Fig. 2.1A). The trunk is straight, with thick branches
terminating in branches of 10–20 cm in length with two large deciduous
stipules enclosing the terminal bud. Root suckers begin bearing in 3–5 years
and seedling plants in 8–10 years.
A
D
B
C
Fig. 2.1. Breadfruit leaf (A), male (B) and female (C) ﬂ owers and immature fruit (D).
Jackfruit and chempedak inﬂ orescences are similar in shape. (From Nakasone and
Paull, 1998, with permission from CAB International.)

28 Chapter 2
Flowers
This monoecious species has the staminate (Fig. 2.1B) and pistillate
inﬂ orescence on a 4–15 cm peduncle in separate leaf axils. The drooping,
spongy, club-shaped male (15–20 u 3–4 cm) inﬂ orescence has minute ﬂ owers,
each with a single stamen. The globose pistillate inﬂ orescence (6–10 cm) is
covered with numerous tiny ﬂ owers on a spongy axis. Each pistillate ﬂ ower is
reduced to a tubular calyx with a two-celled ovary, and a two-lobed stigma on
a short style.
Pollination and fruit set
Rain encourages vegetative growth and ﬂ owering. Some cultivars can ﬂ ower
throughout the year under the right environmental conditions. Cross-
pollination is assured by the staminate inﬂ orescences maturing before the
pistillate. Following wind or insect pollination, fertilization occurs over
3–6 days in seeded cultivars. A high percentage (75%) of the ﬂ orets are set,
with the percentage being reduced in rainy weather. This reduction suggests
that pollination is necessary to stimulate parthenocarpic growth. However,
pollination is diffi cult as the rudimentary perianth acts as a physical barrier to
pollination and argues against the fruit being parthenocarpic. Pollen sterility
is also a factor contributing to reduced fertility and seed production.
Paclobutrazol, naphthalene acetic acid and ethephon inhibit vegetative
growth but fail to stimulate ﬂ owering. In the West Indies, methanol spray in
the dry season has been found to enhance vegetative growth and bring about
earlier and more profuse ﬂ owering. Solar radiation signiﬁ cantly inﬂ uences
the onset of ﬂ owering and female inﬂ orescence production. Fruit set is also
related to tree width, with fewer fruit setting on trees with a greater width;
this is possibly associated with uneven light interception, and suggests that
tree management including pruning and plant spacing can impact fruit
yield.
Fruit
The fruit develops from the entire inﬂ orescence as the perianths of the
individual ﬂ owers attached to the central axis or core, fuse together and
become ﬂ eshy (Fig. 2.1D). The fruit is normally round to oblong, sometimes
cylindrical and 10–30 cm in length. The thin, reticulated skin is pale green or
yellow–green when the fruit is mature, turning yellow-brown when ripe. The
core is surrounded by a pale-yellow or creamy white edible pulp (Fig. 2.2).
Most cultivars are seedless, but the seeded wild types have 10–150 brown
seeds of 2.5 cm in length.
Depending on the stage of maturity and cultivar, the core and the ﬂ esh
will exude a white viscous latex that discolors greenish or reddish-brown on
exposure to air. The skin also exudes latex and dried, hardened drops are an
indication of fruit maturity in some varieties. The fruit matures in 13–21 weeks
from the time the pistillate inﬂ orescence is ﬁ rst detectable in the terminal leaf

Breadfruit, Jackfruit, Chempedak and Marang 29
sheath (Fig. 2.3). Optimum maturity occurs at 15–19 weeks and fruit at this
stage are preferred, as it provides a 5-week period during which the fruit can be
harvested and still be acceptable to the consumer.
Cultivar development
Seedless cultivars are typically triploid (2n ≈ 84), with the reduced seed
number in diploid (2n ≈ 56) cultivars probably due to accumulated mutations
in clonally propagating plants using root suckers. Numerous varieties have
been described (Table 2.1), although few have been compared at the same
location.
Triploidy is common in seedless types. Many Micronesian cultivars are
hybrids or triploids of A. altilis, A. camansi and A. mariannensis, with some of
the diploids being fertile. Molecular data support the conclusion that breadfruit
is a complex of these three species. Seedy types are more common in the
Fig. 2.2. Mature breadfruit (front right), jackfruit leaf and bud (top right) and
jackfruit (back).

30 Chapter 2
Total Sugars (g)
Fig. 2.3. Growth of breadfruit, showing the pattern of fruit diameter, fruit fresh
weight, total sugars and fruit starch. (Redrawn from Worrell et al., 1998.) AIS,
alcohol-insoluble solids.
Table 2.1. Fruit characteristics of selected widely distributed breadfruit cultivars.
(From Ragone, 2011 and others.)
Variety Origin Shape Flesh, seeds
Fruit weight
(average kg)
Ma’afala Polynesia Small oval White ﬂ esh, seedless,
occasionally with
one or two seeds
0.8
Maopo Polynesia Oval to broad
ovoid
Pale white or creamy,
seedless
2.5
Puou Polynesia Round, oval or
heart-shaped
Creamy pale-
yellow, seedless,
occasionally with
one or two seeds
1.9
Meinpadahk Micronesia Oval to
asymmetrical
Light yellow–green,
seedless
1.1
Yellow-heart Caribbean Oval Creamy-yellow,
seedless
2.0

Breadfruit, Jackfruit, Chempedak and Marang 31
western South Paciﬁ c. Evaluation and selection trials are currently underway
in an extensive germplasm collection of Paciﬁ c Island breadfruit cultivars at
the National Tropical Botanical Garden in Hawaii. This organization maintains
an extensive website describing many varieties, although no breeding work has
been reported. Variability has been observed in growth form, leaf shape, fruit
quality, time to bearing, seasonality, keeping quality of fruit and salt tolerance.
Cultural practices
Propagation and nursery management
Seeds have 90–95% viability as soon as they are removed from the fruit, but
this is lost in 2 weeks. Breadfruit is typically clonally propagated traditionally
from root shoots or cuttings, although losses can be high with root suckers.
Roots of 1.5–6 cm in diameter are cut into sections from 12 to 30 cm long.
These are placed in clean, washed sand or potting media and kept moist.
The roots can be placed horizontally below the surface of the medium or
diagonally with the upper few centimeters exposed. The percentage of rooting
ranges from 80% to 85% and takes 2–5 months, if kept well watered. Some
success has been achieved with air layering, budding and grafting.
There is interest in grafting seedless cultivars to rootstock of atoll-adapted
seeded and seedless types. The cultivar Ma’afala has been used as a rootstock
in Samoa.
Field preparation
No special orchard preparation is reported.
Transplanting and spacing
Plants are set out at 7–15 m, depending on the variety and growing
conditions. Shade is provided for the ﬁ rst year as the young tree’s growth
resumes.
Irrigation practices
Continued vegetative growth requires irrigation, especially during periods of
drought. Irrigation reduces fruit drop during the dry season.
Pruning
The tree may be pruned to improve its shape, although regular pruning is not
normally carried out. Trees that have grown too tall to readily harvest are
often topped or trimmed back to keep the tree at a more convenient height.
Fruit-bearing branches may break during heavy fruiting periods and these
need to be removed. Some growers suggest that pruning branches that have
borne fruit stimulates new shoots and limits tree height.

32 Chapter 2
Fertilization
General requirements have not been determined. The application of 100–200
g ammonium sulfate per tree 1 month after planting and again at 6 months
is recommended (Coronel, 1983). The amount should be gradually increased
until the trees start to produce fruit; thereafter, 500–1000 g complete fertilizer
may be applied to each tree twice a year. A full bearing tree may require at
least 2 kg complete fertilizer per application. Mulching and the application of
organic manure two to three times a year, sometimes mixed with fertilizer, are
used to increase and maintain growth rate.
Pest management
‘Pingelap’ causes dieback from the top branches, and tree death is caused by
an unknown organism with no method of control. This was a major disease
in Micronesia in the 1960s. Other diseases include dieback (Fusarium,
Pythium and Rosellinia), leaf spot (Cercospora), leaf rust (Uredo artocarpi),
root rot (Phellinus noxius), fruit rot (Phytophthora, Phyllosticta and Rhizopus)
and stem end rot (Phomopsis, Dothiorella). Fruit rot tends to be more of a
problem on rough- than smooth-skinned varieties. Control measures involve
removing aff ected fruit from the tree and not allowing fruit to ripen on the
tree or rot on the ground. Mealy bugs, scales and twig borers are the major
pests, with no control usually practiced. The fruit is a fruit-ﬂ y host. Recently,
mealybugs have become a major problem aff ecting breadfruit in Kiribati,
while Phellinus is causing crown rot and dieback of trees in Samoa (Brooks,
2002).
Weed management
Mulching around the base of the trunk is practiced to control weeds, conserve
moisture and provide nutrients.
Orchard protection
A windbreak is not usually necessary. However, branches may break in high
winds during periods of heavy fruiting. Breadfruit trees are occasionally used
as windbreaks and shade for other crops.
Harvesting and postharvest handling
Mature-green fruit are harvested as a starch vegetable, while some people
prefer to eat the ripe sweet fruit. Harvested green fruit produce copious latex,
especially from the cut peduncle and injuries on the fruit. Maturity is indicated
by larger size, a slight change in the skin color to yellowish-green, small drops
of latex on the rind and ﬁ rm ﬂ esh texture. In addition, the segments are more
rounded and smoother than in less mature fruit. As the fruit starts to ripen,
the skin changes to a yellowish-green and begins to soften. Latex needs to be

Breadfruit, Jackfruit, Chempedak and Marang 33
allowed to drain from the fruit after harvest and before washing in water to
avoid latex stain.
Fruit that are physiologically mature, with green skin, ﬁ rm ﬂ esh, uniform
shape and free from decay, sun-scald, cracks, bruises and mechanical damage,
are marketed. Fruit at diff erent growth stages are harvested to meet diff erent
market needs. There are no US or international grade standards. The fruit is
graded according to appearance, blemishes, maturity and size. Various fruit
counts are used depending on ﬁ berboard carton size (9–18 kg). Fruit are sold
on a weight basis. Telescope two-piece ﬁ berboard cartons or one-piece cartons
with dividers to minimize fruit movement and rubbing are used.
The fruit is cooled as soon as possible after harvest and stored at 12–14°C
and 90–95% relative humidity for a maximum of about 20 days. Hydrocooling
is not recommended as it leads to skin browning. Film wrapping and coatings
delay the softening and skin discoloration of fruit stored at 13°C. Controlled
atmosphere studies have indicated that at 12°C, the best storage atmosphere
is 2–5% O
2 and 5% CO
2 for up to 3 weeks. Chilling injury symptoms begin to
develop within 7 days at 10°C. Symptoms are a brown scald-like discoloration
of the skin, failure to fully soften, poor ﬂ avor development, and an increase in
decay.
Utilization
Breadfruit is typically eaten while still mature, ﬁ rm and starchy (Fig. 2.3). In
some areas, round immature fruit are also eaten cooked. The sweet ripe fruit
is eaten as a dessert and can be used to make pies, cakes and other sweets. The
fruit can be roasted, boiled, dried, pickled, used in bread making or fermented,
while slices can be fried or stored in brine. The edible ﬂ esh comprises 70% of
the fruit, and is 60–85% water, 1.2–2.4% protein, 22–37% carbohydrate and
0.2–0.5% fat (Table 2.2). The carbohydrate in mature fruit is mainly starch.
Alcohols are the major aroma compounds, with cis-3-hexenol3-hydroxy-
2-butanone, cyclohexanediol and 2-pentanone making up 62% of the
detected volatiles. The cooked seeds are also eaten, and contain 47.7–66.2%
water, with 13.3–19.9% protein, 26.6–76.2% carbohydrate and 2.5–29%
fat. The leaves and fallen fruit are fed to animals. The collected latex is used
medicinally and as a caulk, glue and chewing gum.
JACKFRUIT AND CHEMPEDAK
Introduction
The jackfruit A. heterophyllus Lam. (Moraceae) and its very close relative
chempedak A. integer (Thunb.) Merr. originated in India and Malaysia.

34 Chapter 2
Jackfruit is also known as jacquier (French), nangka (Javanese and Malay),
langka (Philippines), khnaor (Cambodia), makmi, khanum, banum (Thailand)
and mit (Vietnamese). The English name is most likely derived from the
Portuguese jaca, taken from the Malaya tsjaka.
Jackfruit has been spread to Sri Lanka, southern China and south-east Asia,
and further to tropical Africa. It was probably introduced into the Philippines
in the 12th century and domesticated soon thereafter. The writings of Pliny the
Elder as early as 100 AD mention jackfruit as being essential to the traditions
in its place of origin (Campbell and Ledesma, 2003). The tree is still highly
regarded by subsistence farmers from India and through south-east Asia for its
fruit, timber and medicinal uses.
Chempedak, also known as bankong, baroh (Malaysian/Indonesia),
sonekadat (Burmese), champada (Thai), cempedak, jack tree (English), kathal,
kathar (Hindi), campedak, cempedak, comedak (Javanese), chakka, pilual (Tamil)
and mit to nu (Vietnamese) is distributed in Burma, peninsular Thailand and
Malaysia, the Indonesian islands and western New Guinea. Chempedak is
separated from jackfruit by having a smaller size with a slender peduncle, a
male inﬂ orescence that is pale green to yellow and not dark green, smaller and
roundish fruit with a thinner rind, and more juicy ﬂ esh that is a darker yellow
Table 2.2. Composition of 100 g edible portion of breadfruit, jackfruit, chempedak
and marang (Dignan et al., 1994; Wenkam, 1990).
Constituent Breadfruit Jackfruit Chempedak Marang
Edible portion (%) 70 28 22 24–33
Proximate
Water (g) 62 83 67 65.7–84.2
Energy (kcal) 561 301 490 265–510 kJ
Protein (g) 1.3 1.6 2.5 0.8–1.5
Fat (g) 0.18 0.2 0.4 0.2–0.3
Carbohydrate (g) 37 25.4 25.8 32.4
Fiber (g) 1.45 5.6 3.4 0.6–0.77
Ash (g) 1.2 2.2 1.2 0.5–0.8
Minerals
Calcium (mg) 21 37 40 17
Iron (mg) 0.26 1.7 1.1 2.1
Phosphorus (mg) 48 26 5 35
Potassium (mg) 551 292 246 –
Sodium (mg) 13 48 25 –
Vitamins
Thiamine (mg) 0.12 – – –
Riboﬂ avin (mg) 0.06 0.06 0.15 –
Niacin (mg) 1.54 0.4 0.5 –
Vitamin A (IU) 41 66 48 –
Vitamin C (mg) 20.5 7.9 17.7 –

Breadfruit, Jackfruit, Chempedak and Marang 35
when ripe. In addition, the embryo radicle is immersed while in jackfruit it is
superﬁ cial (Jarrett, 1959). Chempedak is restricted to south-east Asia, with
some trees in Australia and Hawaii, while jackfruit is spread throughout the
tropics.
Ecology
Soil
A variety of well-drained soils with a pH 5–7.5 can be used for jackfruit. Deep
alluvial sandy and clay loams are preferred. The soils used for chempedak are
normally uneroded and well-drained, although the tree tolerates temporary
water-logging.
Climate
Cold, drought and ﬂ ood tolerance limits the distribution of jackfruit to areas
with more than 1500 mm rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year,
without a prominent dry season. A warm and humid frost-free climate with
minimum temperatures of 16–22°C and mean temperatures of 25–30°C,
an altitude below 1000 m, and regions 25° north and south are desirable for
good jackfruit bearing. It is grown in protected subtropical regions 30° north
and south. Temperatures below 5°C severely damage trees and frost will kill
developing shoots and fruit, and sometimes main branches. The trees do not
do well in exposed locations with drying winds. They have some salt tolerance,
but poor drought and ﬂ ood tolerance.
Chempedak is found at 0–1200 m in areas with a mean annual temperature
of 13–47°C and mean annual rainfall of 1250–2500 mm. It is frequently an
understory tree.
General characteristics
Tree
These monoecious, evergreen, latex-producing trees reach up to 25 m in
height with a straight stem that branches near the base at an angle of 32–88°.
All parts of the plant produce a milky-white gummy latex. The diameter of
the normally dome-shaped dense canopy is 3.5–7 m in 5-year-old trees. The
trunk is rarely buttressed with a girth of 30–80 cm and a grayish-brown,
rough, uneven, somewhat scaly bark. Minute white hairs up to 0.5 mm long
are found on the surface. The tree produces a long taproot.
The glossy leaves are 4–25 u 2–12 cm (Fig. 2.2) and are usually hairy, with
a dark-green top and pale-green underside. The leaves are arranged alternately
on horizontal branches and spirally on ascending branches. Midrib and main
veins are greenish-white to pale greenish-yellow. At the nodes, the stipules are

36 Chapter 2
fused around the stem that leaves an encircling scar after the leaf abscises.
Chempedak has long wiry brown hairs (<3 mm long) on the leaves, stipules
and twigs.
Flowers
The ﬂ owers in mature trees are found on short shoots from the trunk and
older branches. In young trees, the fruit are borne on branches. The elongated
hanging or drooping male inﬂ orescence is 5–15 cm long and 2–4.5 cm wide,
and produced singly. The whitish- or dark-green spikes have a smooth skin
that becomes yellowish and rough when mature. The female spike is either
solitary or paired and elliptical or round, with rough, light to dark-green skin,
5–15 cm on a 8–9 mm thick peduncle. When young, the male and female
inﬂ orescences are enclosed by a pair of stipules that abscise. Twice as many
male than female inﬂ orescences occur on one tree.
The chempedak male inﬂ orescence is cylindrical, 3–5.5 cm long and 1 cm in
diameter. The male and female inﬂ orescences are similar to those of breadfruit.
Pollination and fruit set
Seedling trees start to bear in 4–14 years, with no photoperiodic response
reported. In suitable hot, humid conditions with evenly distributed rainfall,
jackfruit bear ﬂ owers and fruit throughout the year. In areas with distinct
wet and dry seasons, ﬂ owering occurs in the ﬁ rst 2 months of the dry season
and the wet season. A load of fruit, however, may suppress further ﬂ owering.
The male inﬂ orescence matures 3–5 days before the female. The sticky yellow
pollen has peaks of release between 2.00–4.00 am and 4.00–6.00 pm, with a
sweet scent that attracts small insects; however, the ﬂ owers may be also wind
pollinated. Anthesis commences 2–3 weeks after emergence and lasts about
2 weeks. The ﬂ ower normally rots before abscission, attracting numerous
insects by the smell. The stigmatic surface is composed of papillae that
becomes sticky 1–2 weeks after exertion and remains so for a further 2 weeks.
Jackfruit may be an outcrossing species with some self-incompatibility.
The juvenile period for chempedak from seed is 3–6 years, and 2–4 years
for clonal trees. Chempedak is more seasonal than jackfruit, with blooms
being more common in February to April and August to October in peninsular
Malaysia. In western Java, the fruit ﬂ owers in July and August with fruit
ripening between September and December. Female ﬂ ower heads are found
only on cauliﬂ orous shoots, while most male heads are on peripheral shoots of
the canopy, possibly to facilitate pollination. Chempedak provides sticky pollen
to attract diverse nocturnal insects and is pollinated by them. Female heads
off er a protein-rich liquid. Stigmas remain receptive for 1–2 weeks.
The use of potassium nitrate and plant growth regulator sprays to induce
ﬂ owering has been trialed without success. Potassium nitrate sprays do induce
vegetative growth.

Breadfruit, Jackfruit, Chempedak and Marang 37
Fruit
The multiple fruit are pear- or barrel-shaped syncarps, borne on a 5–10
cm stalk (Fig. 2.2), with jackfruit having a larger fruit (4.5–50 kg) than
chempedak. Each achene that makes up the syncarp is indehiscent, one-
seeded, and 4–10 cm long and 2–4 cm wide when mature. The fruit is pale or
dark green when young, turning to greenish-yellow, yellow or brownish when
mature. The thick rubbery rind (1 cm) in jackfruit has short blunt spines. The
jackfruit receptacle is not separable from the waxy, ﬁ rm-to-soft, golden yellow,
ﬂ eshy, edible perianth (25–40% of the total fruit) that surrounds the seed (5%
of the total weight). Unfertilized ﬂ owers develop as strap-like tissue between
fertilized developing fruitlets. The fruit can have up to 500 seeds, 2–4 cm
long by approximately 2 cm, with each surrounded by a horny endocarp and
subgelatinous exocarp. The seeds are ﬁ rm and waxy, and weigh up to 15 g.
Initial fruit growth is rapid after stigma emergence and for the ﬁ rst couple
of weeks after anthesis. Fruit drop is then signiﬁ cant (approximately 35%) with
the peak occurring 60–80 days after anthesis. Fruit growth follows a sigmoid
growth pattern (Fig. 2.4). The fruit matures in 3–4 months for diff erent varieties
and may take up to 6 months or longer when grown at higher altitudes and in
cooler areas.
Cultivar development
High variability occurs in both jackfruit (2n = 56 [tetraploid]) and chempedak
(2n = 56) characteristics: length of juvenile stage, seed germination, tree
vigor, fruit shape and size, ﬂ esh appearance, amount of latex, edible ﬂ esh,
Length and Girth (cm)
Time After Fruit Set (Days)
Fig. 2.4. Change in jackfruit cv. NS1 girth and length after fruit set. (Redrawn from
Mudaet al., 1996.)

38 Chapter 2
ﬂ avor, aroma and fruit maturation time. No longstanding breeding programs
have been undertaken. Jackfruit and chempedak occasionally hybridize and a
clone has been selected in Malaysia called Nangka-chempedak CH/NA. This
selection ‘Cheena’ has smaller fruit (2.5 kg) and 33% edible ﬂ esh. This ability
to hybridize between the two species attests to their close relationship.
Ripe jackfruit are divided into two types based on edible pulp. The ﬁ rst type
has thin, ﬁ brous, soft, edible ﬂ esh, acid to very sweet with a strong aroma.
The other type has thick, ﬁ rm to crisp ﬂ esh with less aroma. There are many
varieties of both types. Some are more suited to canning than other fresh fruit
varieties. A number of chempedak clones have been selected in Malaysia. Some
of the preferred clones have an attractive orange ﬂ esh and higher yields.
Australian selections are ‘Black Gold,’ ‘Cochin’ and ‘Golden Nugget.’ All
three have deep-orange ﬂ esh. ‘Cochin’ has little latex, while ‘Black Gold’ has a
strong, sweet ﬂ avor. ‘Dang Rasimi’ and ‘Mong Tong’ (Golden Pillow) are two Thai
cultivars. These tend to have a mild sweet ﬂ avor. ‘Dang Rasimi’ has larger fruit
(8 kg) with 32% edible ﬂ esh. ‘Tabouey’ is a popular Indonesian selection with
an average weight of 12 kg and crunchy, pale-yellow ﬂ esh. Twenty types
of jackfruit have been identiﬁ ed throughout India and are currently being
perpetuated through vegetative propagation. ‘Torres,’ ‘Jo’ and ‘Jo2’ are major
cultivars in the Philippines, while 13 cultivars have been characterized in Sri
Lanka.
An extensive selection program in Malaysia has lead to the selections
‘J-30’ and ‘J-31.’ These produce fruit of 7 and 12 kg, respectively, with
36–38% edible ﬂ esh. The deep-orange ﬁ rm ﬂ esh of ‘J-30’ has a sweet taste
and only a slight aroma, while the deep-yellow ﬂ esh of ‘J-31’ has a strong
aroma. Another Malaysian program evaluated 400 samples, which led to
the hybridization of ‘CJ1’ and ‘CJ6’ from which the ‘Mastura’ cultivar was
developed. Commercial plantings of ‘Mastura’ began in 2000 in Malaysia.
It has a golden color with a sweet aroma, and is rapidly developing into a
popular cultivar in the region.
Cultural practices
Propagation and nursery management
Seed from selected trees is the major means of propagation. The seed loses
viability within 3 months of removal from the fruit, so is planted immediately.
Seedlings are best grown under shade. Germination can be improved by
soaking in naphthalene acetic acid or gibberellic acid solutions.
Root cuttings are used to propagate a desirable tree, with stem cuttings and
air layers also being successful with some varieties. Grafting and budding are
now widely used in India and south-east Asia. Jackfruit can also be propagated
in vitro. Budding, grafting and inarching are made onto 12-month-old root
stocks of A. integer, A. heterophyllus, other Artocarpus species and the same

Breadfruit, Jackfruit, Chempedak and Marang 39
species. However, the suitability of these rootstocks has not been evaluated in a
range of environments.
Chempedak is generally grown from seeds taken from ripe fruit with desirable
qualities. The seeds are recalcitrant and do not remain viable for long after
removal from the fruit, and are sown immediately after cleaning with water.
Chempedak can be grafted to like rootstock, and some success with grafting
chempedak to jackfruit and other Artocarpus species has been reported.
Field preparation
Orchards are prepared as for other tree crops.
Transplanting and spacing
Jackfruit transplanting needs to be carried out with care to avoid damage
to the tap root and is best done before the trees are around 1 year old. The
traditional spacing of 6–12 m on a square or triangular pattern has been
recommended for these slow-growing trees. Narrower spacings of 3 m
between trees in a row are now common in trees pruned to 3–5 m.
Chempedak seedlings are ready to transplant in 1 year and are placed 12–14
m apart, generally at the onset of the rainy season. Again, care is taken not to
damage the long taproot.
Irrigation practices
Due to poor drought tolerance, irrigation is required especially during
establishment. In the west Bengal dry season, watering with 30 l per 8-year-
old plant at 30-day intervals has been found to signiﬁ cantly increase fruit
retention, fruit weight and date to ﬁ rst harvest (Table 2.3). Drainage is
essential if the land is subject to ﬂ ooding.
Table 2.3. Effect of watering and grass mulching during the dry season on jackfruit
production. Eight-year-old trees received 30 l water per plant every 30 days (Ghosh
and Bera, 2006).
Treatment
Fruit
retention
(%)
Fruit
weight
(kg)
Fruits per
plant
Date of ﬁ rst
harvest
Control 50 3.7 9 4 June
Mulching, no irrigation 60 3.5 10 15 June
Irrigated from November to
April, with mulching
83 5.5 17 20 June
Irrigated from December to
April, with mulching
77 3.9 21 28 June
CD at 5% 4.8 0.2 1.2 –

40 Chapter 2
Pruning
Shoots are sometimes thinned and branches cleared to allow harvesting
access, although often it is only the dead wood that is removed. Newer pruning
strategies aim for a tree that is 3–5 m high.
Fertilization
The Malaysian recommendation is for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
and magnesium (ratio 8:4:2:1) at 30 g/tree for those 6 months old, doubled
every 6 months to 2 years. Older trees receive 1 kg/tree at a ratio of 4:2:4:1,
every 6 months. Higher rates of 2–3 kg are recommended in the Philippines.
Application is before and at the end of the wet season around the outer
canopy drip line.
Pest management
Seed and blossom rots, leaf spots, pink disease and fruit rot occur on jackfruit.
The blossom and fruit rot are caused by Rhizopus artocarpi to both developing
and mature fruit. Bacterial dieback (caused by Erwinia canetorora) can be a
problem with most Artocarpus species. Corticium salmonicolor causes pink
disease of jackfruit. Root rots caused by Fusarium and Phytophora are major
problems, especially if the root system is ﬂ ooded for a few days. Leafspot
caused by Phomopsis artocarpina, Colletotrichum lagenarium and Septoria
artocarpi is a problem in many areas.
Jackfruit is reported to be attacked by shoot borers, bark borers, bud weevils,
spittle bugs, mealy bugs, scale insects and aphids. Larvae from oriental jackfruit
ﬂ y (Dacus umbrosus Fabricius and D. dorsalis) have been found in jackfruit and
marang, but are controlled with modern baits and protective bags covering the
fruit as it develops. In Asia, monkeys, bats and elephants are common pests.
Weed management
Once the tree is established, weeds are not a problem because of the dense
shade under the canopy. Weeds should be controlled between trees by
cultivation and the use of mulch.
Orchard protection
The tree can withstand moderate wind and is occasional planted as a
windbreak with closer spacing. Depending on wind strength and duration, a
windbreak may be required in commercial orchards.
Harvesting and postharvest handling
Fruit quality after harvest is very dependent on maturity at harvest (Fig.
2.5). Fruit maturity can be judged by a dull hollow sound when tapped, skin
color changing from green to greenish-yellow or yellowish-brown, and a

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äidillinen Hermia vetääntyi aina pois eikä ollut hyvä sanoinkaan
ilmaista mitään.
— Hermia, Hermia, sopersi Aimo ja väänteli rauhattomana
horroksissa. — Sinä tulit kuitenkin ja nyt katson kahteen leimuavaan
silmään. Aiot olla varovaisempi vasta… ei, ei, sinun täytyy olla minua
lähellä. Silmäsi ovat täynnä leimuavaa lempeä, hymyilet, pysyt
etäällä, hyräilet hiljaa ja liikut kuin ilmassa ja kudot hellien
huolenpitojen verkon tiiviiksi ympärilleni. Tule lähemmäksi, anna
minun vain katsoa, vain katsoa silmiisi!
— Pitääkö minun rakastaa kapaloittua miestä?
— Sinä rakastat minua kuitenkin! Aimo heitti peiton pois päältään
ja yritti nousta ja heräsi — vaipui melkein ääneen nauraen
vuoteelleen. — Se nainen on velho, en saa rauhaa. Katkerat sanat
pitävät ainaisessa jännityksessä ja ärsyttävät minut sairaammaksi
kuin olenkaan.
— Jos minä saisin lakia laatia, en jättäisi eloon ainoatakaan
raihnaista olentoa.
— Olisinko minäkin kuolemaan tuomittavien joukossa?
— En oikein vielä tiedä, mutta siltä näyttää. Niin hän sanoi silloin.
Hermia tuli sisään ja Aimo sanoi:
— Se edellinen sairastamiseni palaa aina uudestaan
kummittelemaan unessani, kun vaan vaivun horroksiin.
— Sellaiset muistot ovat aina hyvin vastenmielisiä, sanoi Hermia
terävästi ja katsoi Aimoon sivulta.

Aimon raukeat silmät avautuivat ja katsoivat suoraan ja
pelottomina
Hermiaan.
— Riippuu siitä, mitä kuvia näkee ja missä suhteessa niihin nyt on.
— Tohtori puhuu minulle kuin luokalla oppilailleen.
— Parhaimmista tunteista ei ole meidän kesken koskaan puhuttu
selvillä sanoilla.
— Eikä hyvillä teoilla, lisäsi Hermia tylysti.
— Eipä juuri, muistatko, kuinka minä kerran pyysin sinua
suutelemaan itseäni?
— Muistatko sinä, miten minä siihen vastasin?
— Sinä sanoit: jos sinua suutelen, pitää sinun ratkaista eräs
arvotus; ellet ratkaise, täytyy minun tuomita ja sitten rangaista
sinua.
— Kummallista, sinä muistat sen sanasta sanaan!
— Muistanpa vielä muutakin. Sinä lähensit kasvojasi ja katsoit
hymyillen minuun sallien suudella huuliasi ja sanoit ivallisesti: —
Lapset lakkaavat itkemästä, kun saavat tahtonsa täytetyksi. Eikä se
ollut mikään suudelma, olit kylmä kuin kivi kinoksessa.
— Se oli kaiketi uhri parantuvalle sairaalle. Eihän vaivaisten sovi
vaatia kultakolikolta, pitää tyytyä vaskeen.
— Niinkö se olikin? Aavistin sitä silloinkin, vaan en voinut
ymmärrettävästi selittää arvotusta, olin liiaksi rakastunut ja kärsin

kylmyydestäsi.
— Ja luulit rakkaudeksi voimiesi ensimäistä huumaavaa
heräämistä.
— Hermia!
— Niin, Aimo, voit olla ylpeä, sillä sinä olet ollut ainoa
rakastuneista sairaistani, jolle olen ollut armollinen.
— Rakastuneista sairaistasi! huusi Aimo.
— Niitä on ollut ainakin yhtä paljon kuin sinulla ihastuneita
tyttöoppilaita. Toiset heistä ovat olleet oikein tosissaan ja vielä
terveinäkin suvainneet minua muistaa. En voi valittaa
naimatarjoustenkaan puutetta, olisin voinut tehdä ehkä edullisempia
kauppoja kuin sinä.
— Luonnollisesti, sanoi Aimo ja oli hetken vaiti, tuijottaen
Hermiaan. — Minä tahtoisin vain tietää, oliko se meidän
ensimmäinenkin suudelmamme vain almu sinun puoleltasi!
Hermia punastui ja astui äkkiä akkunan eteen. Syntyi kuuma
äänettömyys ja kummankin sielu oli suojaton välittömässä ja
sanattomassa tunteiden vaihtelussa rakkaiden muistojen katkerasti
vihloessa.
Hermia poistui huoneesta katsomatta Aimoon.
Aimon päivä kului rauhattomassa horrostilassa, unien mutkallisissa
käytävissä, joissa Hermia häntä vainosi. Vasta illemmalla unipulverin
vaikutus hälveni ja pää oli aivan selvä, vaikka kuume olikin kiihtynyt.
Hän kuuli Hermian äänen eteisestä.

— Ei muuta kuin puolitoista korkeintaan; jos annatte liian paljon,
ei hän nuku ollenkaan.
— Tohtori kielsi antamasta joka ilta, sanoi hoitaja.
— Hän tarvitsee unta, kuului Hermian suuttunut ääni.
Hoitaja tuli samassa sisään.
— En minä huoli tuosta, sanoi Aimo.
— Neiti käski ottamaan.
— Minä en ota.
Hoitaja katseli ympärilleen ja kuiskasi: — Kyllä se on otettava,
tässä talossa ei ole hyvä vastustaa. Neiti suuttuu.
— Viekää pois!
— Tulee ihan mykäksi, ei puhu teille luotua sanaa, katsoo vain,
niin että teidän täytyy mennä pois, vaikka siihen paikkaan kuolisitte.
— Aijai, sanoi Aimo ja naurahti lihavan ihmisen kauhua.
— Eikö tohtori nyt sentään…!
Aimo viittasi kädellään pois ja hoitaja meni jättäen lääkkeen
yöpöydälle. Hän ojentihe pitkäksi kivusta vapaana ja tunsi sairauden
kammon paenneen itsestään. Samassa Hermia astui sisään ja katsoi
veitikkamaisesti häneen ollen entistä tuttavallisempi. Viehätystä lisäsi
hänelle outo seurustelupuku, joka teki Hermian muiden naisten
kaltaiseksi ja Aimolle ikäänkuin lähemmäksi. Sininen verka oli
vedetty kireästi pehmeälle vartalolle ja esteettisesti puhdaspiirteinen

kaula ja pää nousi tummasta kehyksestä hurmaavana ja terveydestä
kukoistavana.
— Me olemme hämmästynyt!
— Alamaisenne kapinoitsee, sanoi Aimo samaan tapaan.
— Näytät terveemmältä, entä kuume?
— Ei hätää.
— Suo minulle anteeksi se, mitä eilen sanoin helsinkiläisestä
kiinakapselista. Muistatko?
— Jonka minä nielaisin eheänä samppanjan kanssa.
— Onko sinulla ikävä rouvaasi?
— Ihmeellistähän se on, ettei Silla ole käynyt täällä.
— Sinä tarvitset täydellistä lepoa, sanoi Hermia ja silitteli
pehmeillä liikkeillä Aimon peittoa ja tyynyjä. Muutamat hänen
poveensa pistetyt kielot hipaisivat Aimon poskea.
— Olen menossa konserttiin, sanoi hän ja upotti katseensa Aimon
silmiin. Autuas lamautuminen esti sairasta liikahtamasta. — Ja
tahtoisin olla varma, että sinun on hyvä olla, etkä ikävöi täältä pois,
nukkuisit häiriintymättä aamuun asti eikä mikään sairashuoneen
yöllinen liike sinua oudoksuttaisi. Minä pyydän sinua, ota tämä viaton
lääke!
Hän painui yhä lähemmäksi ja suloinen naisellisuuden tuoksu
hämmensi sairaan. Aimo tunsi Hermian käden hartiainsa alla ja nosti

omat kätensä hänen kaulalleen. Lasi nostettiin huulille ja Aimo joi
unijuoman.
— Kas noin, nyt sinä nukut, hyvää yötä! Hermia hävisi ja Aimoa
ellotti oma heikkous. Hän oli nyt aivan varma siitä, että Hermia
tahtoi unijuomalla vaimentaa hänen voimiaan ja tahtoaan, siten
varmimmin voidakseen viivyttää häntä sairashuoneessaan.
Seuraavana päivänä kahlehti raukeus häntä vielä enemmän kuin
edellisenä, ei voinut syödä, ei sietänyt hoitajaa, ei tahtonut tietää
mistään mitään, oli aivan turtunut. Hermia tuli vasta illalla ja antoi
Aimolle unijuoman. Kaisla oli poissa monta päivää eikä Aimo saanut
selvää vastausta kysyessään rouvaansa. Kun lääkäri tuli, oli hän yhtä
mieltä Hermian kanssa: ei kotiin, ei millään muotoa.
— Täytyy odottaa, sanoi Kaisla ja ravisteli päätään. — Sinä laihdut,
vanha veikko, etkö sinä syö mitään?
Aimo katsoi Hermiaan eikä vastannut. Jos hän olisi hetkisenkin
ollut lääkärin kanssa yksin, olisi asia kyllä selvinnyt, mutta Hermia ei
jättänyt koskaan heitä kahden. Sinä iltana ei Aimon tarvinnut niellä
unipulveria ja seuraavana päivänä hän oli virkeämpi. Hermia oli
kiehtovan kaunis valkoisessa liinapuvussaan, joka välkkyi pehmeänä
kuin silkki, pysytteli Aimon huoneessa koko päivän liikkuen kevyesti
ja jaaritellen iloisesti, toi kukkia ja hedelmiä, teki kaikkensa
viihdyttääkseen sairasta.
— Meidän keittiömme ei taida oikein kyetä kilpailemaan sinun
rouvasi uuden uutukaisten herkkujen kanssa, sanoi hän piloillaan.
— Eikö Silla ole käynyt täällä? kysyi Aimo hämillään vaimonsa
välinpitämättömyydestä.

— Kyllä hän kävi ensimäisinä päivinä usean kerran, mutta sinähän
olet ollut perin heikko, enkä minä voinut päästää ketään luoksesi. Älä
pahastu, koetin kyllä rauhottaa lapsi parkaa. Parempihan hänen on
kotonaan Helsingissä, kun ei kuitenkaan voi sinua auttaa täällä
olollaan.
— Onko hän matkustanut? huudahti Aimo.
— Lapsi parka olisi tullut sairaaksi levottomuudesta
yksinäisyydessä. Helsingissä hänellä on koti ja äiti ja…
— Niin, niin, parempi on näin, sanoi Aimo katkerasti.
— Hän on niin nuori, sinua paljon nuorempi! Hermia laski kätensä
Aimon kädelle ja ojensi hänelle muutamia rypäleitä. — Sitä ei sinun
pitäisi unohtaa.
Aimo huokasi ja antoi rypäleet takaisin.
— Milloin Silla matkusti? kysyi hän kiihtyneenä.
— Vasta eilen illalla. Tohtori Allen meni häntä saattamaan.
— Oliko Silla sairas?
— Olisiko se niin kummallista? Hemmoteltu lapsi, tottumaton
kaikkeen vastoinkäymiseen, ihan varmaan hän olisi täällä
sairastunutkin. Minä puhuin siitä tohtori Allenillekin, ja hän oli samaa
mieltä.
— Miksen minä saanut siitä tietää! sanoi Aimo suuttuneena.
— Hiljaa, hiljaa, sinä et saa kiihtyä, tautisi on enemmän
hermostumista kuin luuletkaan. Sinun pitää olla levossa tavalla millä

tahansa.
— Tulen huonommaksi päivä päivältä, sanoi Aimo katkerasti.
— Kaikkeahan sairas kuvittelee. Minä neuvoisin sinua otattamaan
pois umpisuolen, muuten se kiusaa sinua kaiken ikäsi.
— Mitä tohtori Kaisla sanoo? kysyi Aimo epäilevänä.
— Me olemme samaa mieltä.
— Vai niin te ajattelette.
— No, ei nyt noin surkeana, poikaseni, sehän on vähäpätöinen
seikka.
Kolmessa viikossa olet ihan ennallaan ja varmasti terve.
Hermia nauroi voitonvarmana.
— Sinulla on erinomainen voima taivuttaa minut mihin tahansa.
— Niin, näes, minä en ole koskaan sinua pettänyt. Enkö ole aina
ollut oikeassa? lisäsi hän vakavana.
— Tarkotatko entisiä?
— En erittäin, tiesinhän, mitä seuraisi, kun paranisit ja heräisit
oikeaan elämääsi. Sairaan tunteet muuttuvat vastenmielisiksi
houreiksi.
— Hermia!
— Niin, eikö muka muuttuneet?

— En tiedä, minä tahdoin silloin unohtaa, enkä ole voinut, nyt sen
tiedän.
— Minun tapaiseni ihmiset ovat kaviollisia peikottaria.
— Siltä tuntuu, sanoi Aimo uhitellen.
— Ja muutamat rakastajat ovat taikauskoisia pelkureita.
— Entä sinun rakkautesi, mikset pitänyt kiinni minusta silloin?
— Tahtoisitko sinä syleillä raihnaista naista? Minä olin nähnyt sinut
vain sairaana, sanoi Hermia kiduttaen Aimoa halveksivalla hymyllään.
— Emme ole siis toisillemme mitään velassa?
— En neuvoisi ketään jättämään velkaansa maksamatta minulle!
sanoi
Hermia säihkyvin silmin.
— Minusta tuntuu kuitenkin kuin kuume vaivaisi meitä kumpaakin.
— Miksi et sitten ajoissa tullut minun luokseni ja sammuttanut
janoasi!
— Sinun laisiasi naisia ei haeta, heidän pitää itse tulla.
— Niin, sinun laisesi mies ei sitä tosiaankaan uskaltaisi. Sinä et
tiedä, kuinka minä janoon sellaista miestä, joka jaksaisi minut
lannistaa, jännittäisi voimani äärimmilleen ja tuottaisi minulle
kärsimyksiä, nöyryytystä ja huutaisi voitonvarmana: — Sinä olet
minun vaikka horna meidät veisi!
Hermia nauroi hermostuneesti ja katsoi kiiluvin silmin Aimoon.

— Ei sellaista miestä taida tulla, sinä olet diabolinen. Se kuuluu
olevan sitä oikeata, suurta kauneutta ja sinussa on sitä!
— Minun pitää siis elää voimattomien verestä, imeä ne tyhjiksi ja
heittää sitten menemään! ilkkui Hermia.
— Sadun seireenit tekivät niin.
— Nykyaika taitaa kasvattaa tosiseireenejä.
— Kuka tietää, eikö jokapäiväinen verenvuodatus ole tehnyt sinua
pedoksi, sanoi Aimo.
— Hoo, minä en tahtoisi kärpästäkään musertaa, kuolema on
minusta kauhea! huusi Hermia.
— Mutta kun se tulee hiljaa ja hiipien, silloin se lienee tervetullut.
— Silloin kuolema on pelastaja ja minä kiitän sitä sairaitteni
puolesta.
— Suuremmoista laupeutta!
— En milloinkaan nuku niin levollisesti kuin kuoleman käytyä
sairaalassani. Aimoa värisytti.
— Säikytkö sinä, noo, avaahan silmäsi ja katso, miltä näyttää
täysverinen hirviö!
Hän nauroi niin herttaisesti täynnä onnekasta riemua ja
elämänhalua, että Aimon kamala tunne huuhtoontui tuntumattomiin.
— Voi teitä, oppineita ihmisiä, ette ole miehiä ettekä naisia.
Aivotyönne kuluttaa teistä kaiken polttoaineen pitäen ruumiinne ja

sielunne orjanaan. Rakkaus on teille paperille pantavia, verettömiä
kamarihaaveita. Voitte ihailla esteettisesti kauniita muotoja, mutta
elosta sykkivä ja rakkaudesta vapiseva olento on teistä
vastenmielinen ja elämän ja kuoleman kiihkeä taistelu kauhistaa
teitä. Teidän kuumeenne ei siedä raitista vettä, se tarvitsee
kiinakapselin!
Hermia oli istunut Aimon vuoteen reunalle ja katseli häntä säälien.
— Kukin elää niinkuin jaksaa, sanoi Aimo.
— Miksi hyväksi sinä terotat järkeäsi, kun muovailet elämäsi
puukirveellä! huudahti Hermia kärsimättömänä.
— Tahdon saada kotirauhan ja levon voidakseni tehdä työtä, sanoi
Aimo rehellisesti.
Hermia vihelsi pitkään.
— Ahaa, nyt minä ymmärrän! Minä olen kun olenkin pirullinen.
Sinä unohdit vain, että paholainen on kaikkein lahjakkain
ihmishengen luomista, ja että hän voi auttaa rakkaitaan
suuruuteenkin.
— Minä en janoa suuruutta!
— Sinä janoat kuitenkin onnea, vaikka oletkin valinnut sen varjon!
— Syytät itseäsi, sano, kumpi meistä valitsi silloin kun kohtalomme
määrättiin?
— Olisitko sinä silloin tarkottanut totta…?

Hermian silmissä paloi ja tummalle iholle oli levinnyt lämmin puna.
Hän nousi puristaen käsiänsä yhteen. — Minä en usko; jos kerran
rakastaa, ei luovu taistelematta!
Äänessä oli polttavaa tuskaa ja katse paloi rukoilevana Aimon
katseessa.
Aimo nousi ja veti hänet lähemmäksi. Sanaton mahti poisti ajan
kutoman verhon ja vanha kytevä tuli leimahti silmästä silmään.
Kuumissa suuteloissa jatkui nuoruuden suloinen rakkaus kypsyneenä
katkeraksi onnen janoksi.
Äkkiä Hermia riuhtaisi itsensä irti ja katsoi huohottaen Aimoon
puhuen katkonaisesti kuin peitellen omaa heikkouttaan.
— Sinä olet — tosiaan tulinen — voisi luulla oikeaksi mieheksi! —
Hän nauroi hermostuneesti ja iva välähti katseessa. — Ellet olisi
sairas, voisin suuttua rohkeudestasi — taikka ehkä sinä vain tahdoit
antaa almun vanhallepiialle!
Aimo veti häntä lähemmäksi.
— Ei, ei, enhän minä tahdo olla myrkyllinen. Tahtoisin uskoa tähän
suloiseen houreeseen. Minä janoon rakkautta. Tahtoisin löytää sen
miehen… puhun tyhmyyksiä.
— Ole kerran itsesi!
— Itsenikö? Silloin minä olisin naisraukka. Minä ikävöin lasta,
omaa lasta!
Tunnustus tuli niin äkkiä ja intohimoisesti, että Aimo irrotti hänet
syleilystään ja katsoi häneen tutkivasti.

— Niin, minä tahdon kerran olla oma itseni vaikka vain tämän
ainoan hetken. Minä en ole voinut tunnustaa tätä kellekään muille
kuin nyt sinulle. Tahdon omistaa yhden ihmisen täydellisesti,
varmasti, yksin.
— Rakkaus yhdistää kaksi ihmistä täydellisesti. Äiti ei koskaan
omista lastaan sillä tavalla.
— Minä omistaisin!
— Tyranniseeraisit!
Tunne oli loihtinut onnen soinnun Hermian ääneen ja puhtauden
valokehä ympäröi hänen kukoistavaa kauneuttansa, kun hän risti
kätensä ja kohotti katseensa. — Ei, ei, minä palvelisin, hoitelisin,
opettaisin vain kaunista. Hän painaisi pienen nyrkkinsä minun
niskalleni ja sanoisi: — äiti, minä tahdon! Sellainen luja pikku nyrkki
olisi minun lakini ja valtakuntani. Se olisi minun ylösnousemukseni!
Ei, ei, älä sano mitään — anna minun uneksia loppuun kaunis
unelmani. Minä tahtoisin olla onnellinen edes yhden päivän, kaksi,
viikon, ehkä kuukauden. Silloin olisin jo rikas, voisin rakastaa lastani
punastumatta. Se olisi silloin omani, ihan omani, sieluni lapsi!
— Eikö isän?
— Isän?
— Niin, niin, isän?
— Luuletko sinä, että toinenkin voisi omistaa minun lapseni?
Kuuletko, minun oman lapseni? Ei, tuhat kertaa ei! Hän itki
hermostuneesti.

— Hermia raukkani, sinä et tosiaan voisi jakaa, sanoi Aimo hellästi
ja katsoi hänen ohitsensa nähden sisäisen silmänsä edessä oman
vaimonsa lapselliset, avomieliset kasvot.
Hermia seurasi hänen katsettaan ja luki hänen ajatuksensa,
hypähti ylös ja katsoi Aimoon terävästi.
— Jos jaksaisin uskoa edes yhden päivän sinun rakkauteesi.
Minusta tuntuu kuin näkisin sinun lävitsesi. Sinä vertaat nytkin minua
siihen toiseen. Hänellä on pieni nykeröinen nyrkki ja sen hän painaa
sinun niskaasi. Se on sinun omasi ja se osaa jakaa!
— Silla on herttainen lapsi.
— Minä vihaan kaikkia nuoria tyttöjä. Ne ovat kuin silmättömiä
kissanpoikia, vaappuvat sinne ja tänne, avaavat suunsa ja silloin
siihen pitää tulla ruokaa. Ja armas, kun ne saavat silmät, silloin ne
heti äkkäävät — oman häntänsä ja tavottavat sitä hurjassa
pyörinässä.
— Sinä olet hauska.
— Ja silloin te hurmaannutte ja rakastutte! Mutta sitten…
— Noo, entä sitten?
— Siitä kissanpojasta voi sukeutua tiikeri — oikein verenhimoinen
tiikeri!
— Sinähän äsken juuri toivoit itsellesi tuollaista hauskaa olentoa.
— Minun tyttäreni astuisikin kaikkien muiden pään tasalla.
— Niin kai jokainen äiti uneksii omasta lapsestaan.

— He uneksivat, mutta minä sen tekisin!
— Voimaa ja kykyä sinulla siihen olisi, jos se auttaisi.
— Auttaisi varmasti.
— Ei! sanoi Aimo jyrkästi. Sinulla ei olisi rakkautta.
— Luuletko kalan veren valuvan minun suonissani ja rakkauteni
uupuvan.
— En suinkaan, sinä rakastat — itseäsi!
— Aimo!
Hermia oli kääntynyt äkkiä ja seisoi suuttuneena vuoteen ääressä,
mutta samassa vääntyi hänen suunsa ivan hymyyn.
— Ihminen on sentään kehno kapine. Tässä olen rupattanut kuin
hupakko ja paljastanut itseni. Huh, eikö totta, sellaisen jälkeen
tuntee itsensä hyvin noloksi? On kuin mikä tyhjäksi kolistettu
kultasäkki, arvottomana pois heitettävä!
— Sinä tahdot voittaa rakkauden jumalattaren suosion ilman uhria.
Se ei koskaan onnistu.
— Ahaa, sinä luomakunnan herra, nöyryyttä, nöyryyttä, tyttöseni!
Minä kiitän sinua äsken antamastasi lahjasta ja teen uhrin, ehkä
rakkauden jumalatar sitten leppyy ja lähettää minulle sen — oikean!
— Puhut arvotuksia.
— Sinun täytyy saada tilaisuus unohtaa minut sitten taas, kun
täältä selviät, ja muistella tätä ilkeänä horrosaikana ja minua

kamalana painajaisena!
— Heitä tuo iva, se tappaa minut! Tiedän kyllä saavani maksaa
tämän kalliisti. Se ensimäinen suutelo sytytti tulen, joka on
kuihduttanut minua vuosikaudet, ja tämä toinen voi viedä henkeni!
— Ja kuitenkin sinä uskalsit suudella, sinä ylväs sankari, vaikka
tiesit varmasti, että se kostetaan. Se kostetaan, ole varma siitä!
Hermian kellertävä iho muuttui vihreäksi ja silmien valkuaiset
välähtivät.
— Olet rehellinen, sanoi Aimo katsoen häneen kylmästi.
— Rehellisyys ennen kaikkea lemmentaistelussakin. Me voimme
kyllä kaatua hyvälläkin veneellä, mutta tahallaan ei saa mennä
pohjaan, pitää yrittää pysyä pinnalla vielä kuoleman kuilussakin.
Elämä on toki sen arvoinen!
— Minä en ymmärrä sinua.
— Sinä et ole rehellinen. Sinä rakastat minua etkä tahdo myöntää
sitä. Olet raukka! Sellainen raukkamaisuus on kuolemansynti. Minä
en anna sinulle sitä anteeksi. Ennen soisin…! Hyvää yötä!
— Hermia, Hermia!
Hän kääntyi ovessa ja katsoi Aimoon.
— Sano minulle, vertasitko sinä äsken minua siihen toiseen?
— Miksi sinä sitä oikeastaan kysyt?
— Eikö minulla ole oikeutta kysyä?

— Tavallansa.
— Vai tavallansa, mutta minä tahdon tietää varmasti, saneli
Hermia hitaasti ja puristi kätensä nyrkkiin.
— Rakkaudessa on aina vuoksi ja luode.
— Tiedätkö, Aimo, minä olen vannonut itselleni pyhän valan.
— Pitääkö minun saada se tietää?
— Pitää. Sinun täytyy olla varmasti selvillä itsestäsi, kun jätät
tämän sairaalan: minä vaiko se toinen! Hyvää yötä!
Hermia meni.
Yöllä Aimo sairastui ankarasti ja seuraavana päivänä häntä
valmisteltiin leikkausta varten. Hermiaa hän ei nähnyt sinä päivänä,
mutta kuuli hänen väsymättömien askeleittensa kopinan pitkässä
käytävässä leikkausta varten järjestäessä. Aimon korva oli tottunut
erottamaan hienoimmatkin äänen vivahdukset ja liikkeet ympärillä ja
hänen hiljaisessa huoneessaan ne nostivat kiduttavan kaiun. Kimeä
huuto, naisen ääni, vihlaisi halki hiljaisuuden ja sitä seurasi voihkiva
valitus täyttäen melullaan sairaalan. Se eteni ja heikkeni vähitellen ja
kaikki oli hiljaa. Hetken kuluttua jokin ovi avautui ja miehen
turtunutta mörinää säestivät raskaat, laahustavat askeleet Aimon
oven takana leikkaushuoneeseen. Aimoa ellotti ja kylmä hiki nousi
iholle ja jännittyneenä hän seurasi liikkeitä kuin omaa
kuolemantuomiotaan kuunnellen. Sitten kaikki vaikeni, oli
kuolonhiljaista tuntikaudet. Kukaan ei käynyt häntä katsomassa,
mitään hän ei saanut nauttia. Kolottava kipu tuntui ruumiissa ja
ammottava tyhjyys paisui muodottomaksi möhkäleeksi ja muuttui

Hermiaksi, joka painoi häntä yhä syvemmälle ja syvemmälle, kunnes
hän hätkähti ja heräsi kuin pohjaan pudonnut.
Seuraavasta päivästä hän ei paljoa tiennyt, oli kuin turtunut
kuumeesta ja kivusta. Hän hoippui kylpyyn, pukeutui pitkään paitaan
ja sukkiin. Hoitaja auttoi häntä leikkaushuoneeseen. Siellä oli
vastassa kaksi lääkäriä, Hermia ja pari muuta hoitajaa. Aimo hätkähti
ja muisti unessa näkemänsä saman nahalla päällystetyn pöydän,
märän villavaipan ja ihmiset. Hän nousi itse pöydälle, kostea huopa
heitettiin hänen päälleen ja Hermia kumartui hänen ylitsensä ja
painoi nukutuskoppaa suulle.
— Ei niin äkkiä, sanoi Aimo ja työnsi pois ellottavaa koppaa, —
minä itse hengitän hiljaa… hiljaa…
— Onko rihma ja neula valmiina? kuuli hän lääkärin kysyvän.
— Valmis en, sanoi Hermia. — Ai, minä en muistanutkaan ostaa
kummisormia!
— Kuinka käy, kun ei ole kummisormia, mutisi sairas.
Sitten kaikki hävisi.
* * * * *
Joku piteli häntä leuasta ja huusi: — Herätkää, tohtori!
Häntä paleli ja janotti eikä suu tahtonut puhua.
— Antaa nukkua vain, kyllä hän tähän kurjuuteen ennättää herätä,
sanoi lääkäri.
— Hän voi nukkua ainaisesti, sanoi Hermian ääni aivan lähellä.

— Antakaa hänelle joku teelusikallinen vettä suuhun, niellä ei saa
mitään, kuului lääkärin ääni.
Aimo kuunteli nyt vain omaa tuskaansa, joka oli kiihtynyt ja
muuttanut vatsan pohjaan.
— Janottaa, sanoi hän, mutta kukaan ei kuullut, vaikka kaksi
ihmistä seisoi lattialla. Kummallista, kuinka huone oli muuttunut.
Olihan tuossa samanlainen akkuna ja hänen omat kirjansa pöydällä,
kello ja sama pesupöytä kuin ennenkin. He olivat varmaan kantaneet
hänet toiseen huoneeseen leikkauspöydältä, toiselle puolelle
käytävää. Sänkykin oli nyt toisinpäin kuin siellä entisessä huoneessa.
Siellä oli ollut ihana olla, suloinen elämän lepo ja herttainen lämpö.
Täällä oli kolkkoa ja tuskallista. Joku tuli lähelle ja hän yritti jälleen
sanoa: — janottaa.
Nainen ymmärsi ja antoi hänelle teelusikalla vettä ja huusi:
— Ei saa niellä, pitää sylkeä pois, kun on kastanut suuta.
— Lieneekö tuo Hermia, ajatteli Aimo eikä jaksanut käsittää. Tuska
vatsanpohjassa piti vallassaan vieden muun tunnon.
— Kovin on heikko, kuuli hän naisäänen sanovan toiselle.
Taas kului pitkä aika kolottavassa tuskassa, liikkumattomuudessa
ja tukehuttavassa janossa.
— Kummallista tämä on, sanoi jokin ääni. — Suutari on paljon
virkeämpi, vaikka hänen haavansa jätettiin auki ja tämän pitäisi olla
parempi, koska se neulottiin kiinni.

— Minä olin mukana leikkauksessa enkä ole sen kauheammassa
paikassa vielä eläissäni ollut.
— Kuinka niin, olethan sinä nähnyt jo satoja.
— Tohtori kirosi ja oli äkäinen koko ajan, hän oikein kipinöitsi
vihasta, ja neiti oli kalpea kuin kuolema, väliin vaan muljautti
silmiään. Katsos, se kone, termogaattori, miksi ne sitä sanovat, ei
toiminut, pumppu oli mennyt rikki. Tohtori tahtoi polttaa jotakin
haavassa eikä saanut rautaansa kuumaksi. Silloin hän tarttui itse
koneeseen, itse, arvaas, puhtailla käsillään ja sitten hän taas piteli
haavaa. Sano minun sanoneeni, sinne voi tulla mätää. Ja kuinka hän
pumppusi! Me luulimme kaikki sen räjähtävän.
— Kenenkä syy sitten oli, että pumppu oli rikki, mahtoi katsoa itse.
— Tohtori luotti neitiin.
— Eikö sitä katsottu ennen leikkausta?
— Ei, kun ei sitä ole hiljan käytetty.
— Se raukka valittaa, lieneekö sillä tuskia.
— Kyllä kai, haava vedettiin liian kovasti kiinni, ja se ajaa varmaan
fisteliksi. Sen sanoi tohtori itse. Mutta älkää sanoko tästä sairaalle,
jatkoi sama ääni. — Kun se nyt edes heräisi kunnolleen.
— Hyvin se on Hintti-Heikki siihen karvansa lyönyt, sanoi toinen
ääni. — Minä pelkään jäädä kahden hänen kanssaan koko yöksi.
Mikä se Hintti-Heikki oli, ei Aimo oikein jaksanut tajuta, mutta nimi
vasaroi: Hintti-Heikki, Hintti-Heikki, pitkän aikaa.

Lääkäri tuli vielä myöhään illalla ja ihmetteli sairaan huonoa tilaa.
— Onko tuskia?
— Särkee vatsanpohjassa taukoamatta, sanoi Aimo tuskin
kuuluvalla äänellä.
— Se on haavan alapäässä. Kyllä leikattu haava usein särkee, ei se
mitään, ole levollinen vain.
— Mitä kello on? kysyi Aimo, sillä aika tuntui toivottoman pitkältä.
— Kymmenen, sanoi tohtori.
— Minä en enää jaksa kestää tuskia, antakaa minulle jotakin
lieventävää.
— Onko hän ollut kauan hereillä, kysyi lääkäri naisilta.
— Ehkä kymmenen minuuttia, sanoi toinen naisista.
Tämä ijäisyys oli siis kestänyt vain kymmenen minuuttia. Kyyneleet
nousivat silmiin ja kipeällä kateudella hän ajatteli suutaria, joka oli
päivällä leikattu.
— Onko suutarillakin tuskia? kysyi hän ääneen.
— Ei suinkaan, sanoi nainen ja katsoi tohtoriin.
— Onnellinen mies, huokasi Aimo.
— Antakaa hiukan morfiinia, sanoi tohtori ja poistui. Jotakin
pistettiin Aimon reiteen ja kohta sen jälkeen tuli suloinen hetki,
makean levon huumaus, aivan kuin elämä olisi kuumana ja

hekumaisena valunut avatuista suonista lämpöiseen veteen ja hän
itse noussut keveisiin ilmakerroksiin. — Äkkiä tuli sulku. Tuska alkoi
uudestaan tärisyttäen ylenannoiksi.
— Ei sille morfiini sovi, sanoi nainen.
Aimo tahtoi kestää ja vetääntyi omaan itseensä valittamatta. Kaikki
poistuivat, mutta toinen naisista palasi pian tuoden suuren turkin
tullessaan. Aimo riemastui luullen saavansa sen peitokseen, sillä
huoneessa oli hyvin kylmä ja häntä paleli. Nainen kietoi sen
ympärilleen ja veti nojatuolin vuoteen viereen asettuen mukavasti
turkkiin käärittynä valvomaan. Lämmin turkki teki pian tehtävänsä ja
nainen alkoi nuokkua istuallaan ja horjahti sivulle ojentautuen Aimon
jalkojen päälle pitkäkseen.
Aimo tunsi ruumiissaan riipaisun ja sitten hirveän kolotuksen
haavassa ja koko olennossaan aivan kuin veitsellä olisi viillelty ristiin
rastiin. Hän huusi voimiensa takaa:
— Herätkää, herätkää!
Kylmä hiki ja kauhu tuppasi tukehuttamaan, mutta hän turrutti
itsensä kestääkseen taikka kuollakseen. Yhdentekevä, jos niiksi on,
päätteli hän epätoivoisena. Nainen makasi painavana ja elottomana
kuin kivi hänen jaloillaan.
Tuskan aallot nousivat ja laskivat kohotellen pinnalle irvisteleviä
naamoja. Toisinaan hän näki väläykseltä kaksi suurta, ruskeaa
silmää. Niiden kylmä kiilto ahdisti henkeä tukehuttavasti. Mitä on
kuolema? kysyi Aimo niiltä. — Suloista lepoa, ainaista unta! Ja nyt
hän huusi lakkaamatta: — Hermia, anna minulle kuolema! niinkuin
myrskyssä huudetaan hengen edestä.

Hän huusi tuntikaudet, tuskallisen ijäisyyden yön, niinkuin hän
luuli.
Nukkuva nainen hänen jaloillaan oli mahdoton poistaa, mahdoton
kestää.
Äkkiä paino nousi jaloilta kuin temmattuna, ja huojennuksen
kyyneleet nousivat Aimon silmiin tuskan vähetessä. Hän näki
hämärässä Hermian tumman pään ja naisen tuolissaan istumassa.
Aimo osotti naista: — Viekää pois! Tappaa minut! Painoi jalkoja,
hirveä tuska!
— Tiedän, ystävä kulta, mutta hän tahtoi estää teitä liikkumasta.
— Pois, pois, huohotti Aimo rukoilevalla äänellä.
— Minä en saa jättää teitä yksin eikä minulla ole muita yöhoitajia.
Hyvää yötä, ystävä parka, rohkeutta ja kärsivällisyyttä; jos voitetaan
aikaa, voitetaan elämä, sanoi Hermia virallisesti aikoen poistua.
Pelko ahdisti jälleen Aimoa ja hän tarttui heikoin voimin Hermian
käteen pidättääkseen häntä, mutta Hermia irrotti kätensä varmasti,
ja Aimo liukui jälleen avuttomuuden ja yksinäisyyden kammottavaan
kuiluun, missä ijäisyyden aavistus syntyi. Kello löi jossakin yksitoista.
Oli siis kestetty yksi tunti.
Yön hiljaisuus oli alkanut eikä huoneessa palava lamppu voinut
haihduttaa hämärän huntua. Se tuntui verhoavan ympäristöä ja
aikaa sulattaen entisyyden ja nykyisyyden suureksi tyhjyydeksi. Se
oli kuin usvaa, nousi ja laski, haihtui ja kerääntyi. Äkkiä hän oli
olevaisuudessa, tunsi kivun kipinän. Se paisui ja paisui tuskan
laineiksi, jotka veivät tunnon ja tajunnan, velloivat kuiluissaan ja

kukkuloillaan, missä sielun silmille häämötti ijäisyyden meri. Unhotus
kääri huntuunsa entiset ja nykyiset, siirsi ne kauas pois, missä ne
häämöttivät pieninä ja outoina. Aika lakkasi olemasta. Tyhjyyden
hämärä läheni… läheni. Tajunta sanoi: — kuolema tarjoo kättä.
Tahdotko? Ja hämäryys kuljetti häntä kuin siivillä… Ei, ei! Ja tuska
riipaisi elämään rautaisilla pihdeillä. Se silpoi kuin tulisilla miekoilla ja
huuhteli haavat polttavilla laineilla. Ja tajunta huusi: — kuolema,
kuolema, anna lepoa, rauhaa!
Mutta hämärästä nousi hiljainen ääni: — elämä… Se kasvoi ja
varmeni, se voitti tuskan äänekkäät huudot ja kuiskasi tajunnalle: —
kuljit kuoleman portin sivutse.
Kärsimysten yö oli kestetty ja elämä sairaan ympärillä alkoi. Hänen
tajuntansa rautainen jänne pysyi vireissä ja kasvoi voimassa.
Lääkäri tuli aamulla ja katseli häntä mutisten: — huono väri,
huono väri, ja sanoi ääneen: — oletko nauttinut mitään?
— Vettä, sanoi Aimo.
— Miksei ole annettu marjamehua taikka lihalientä? kysyi mies
tuimasti.
— Ei neiti ole käskenyt.
Lääkäri kävi tulipunaiseksi ja poistui huoneesta. Hetken kuluttua
tuotiin mehua. Se oli suloista ja ihmeekseen hän huomasi, että
kuoleman kynnyksellä punaisen nesteen pisara voi tehdä autuaaksi.
Juotuaan muutaman lusikallisen haihtui sumu ja hän osasi
selvemmin puhua.

Kahdeksan vuorokautta oli elämä kuitenkin hämärää, vaikka kipu
väheni tuntumattomiin. Hän luuli vaan olevansa viety johonkin
ikävään ja kolkkoon huoneeseen toiselle puolelle käytävää, ja hän oli
kovin väsynyt aina, vaikka nukkuikin toisinaan hyvin. Hoitaja mittasi
ruumiin lämmön ja kirjotti sen paperille. Tohtori katsoi sitä
käydessään ja oli levollinen. Eräänä aamuna Aimo otti itse lasin
kainalostaan ja katsoi sitä. Se näytti korkeaa kuumetta. Hän ei
uskonut, ravisti mittaria ja pisti uudestaan kainaloonsa. Se oli jo
noussut lähelle kolmeakymmentä yhdeksää, kun hoitaja äkkiä tullen
huoneeseen nykäisi sen häneltä ja huusi:
— Ei tohtori saa koskea mittariin!
— Käskekää neiti tänne, sanoi Aimo ankarasti.
Hoitajan täytyi totella ja Hermia tuli.
— Minulla on kuumetta, soittakaa Kaislalle!
— Ei suinkaan, sanoi Hermia ja mittasi itse.
Hoitaja katosi huoneesta sivulleen vilkkuen.
Hermia oli vaiti ja katsoi Aimoon tutkivasti.
Kaisla tuli, tuoden mukanaan kaksi Aimolle outoa miestä. Lienevät
olleet lääkäreitä, joita harvinainen haavan avaaminen houkutteli.
Huoneessa oli paljon väkeä ja Aimosta tuntui kamalalta päiden
outojen ihmisten läsnä ollessa kärsiä tuskia, jotka hän tiesi johtuvan
hoitajiensa rikollisesta huolimattomuudesta. Haava leikattiin auki,
sillä mätä oli voinut tunkeutua vatsaonteloon. Aimo kesti tuskat
puristaen taaskin tarmonsa kireäksi rautajänteeksi. Kylmä hiki nousi
otsalle ja suu kuivui sietämättömästi. Lääkäri vakuutti, ettei tämä

niin kovin koske, sillä eihän vatsassa ole paljon hermoja. Aimo oli
kuitenkin toista mieltä. Lääkärin selittelevät sanat leikkauksen
menosta ja kaikkien noiden vieraiden ihmisten tunnoton tapa
katsella häntä kuin persoonatonta teuraseläintä ellotti häntä. Mieli
katkerana hän kesti hyvin tietäen, että hänen tuskiansa pidennettiin
ja hyvin heikkoja voimia rasitettiin parin miehen tiedonhalun
tyydyttämiseksi.
Hän kaipasi ihmistä, johon olisi voinut turvautua, sillä täällä oli hän
persoonaton olio, hoitajien ja lääkärin mielivallassa: tapahtui, mitä
tapahtui, hänen elämänsä oli höyhenkevyt heidän käsissään. Nyt hän
tiesi olevansa sidottu kuudeksi viikoksi vuoteeseensa, ehkä
kauemmaksikin.
Hänen kuulonsa herkistyi ja ulkonaisten tapahtumain seuraaminen
kävi tuskallisen tarkaksi. Hän tuli osalliseksi kaikesta sairaalan
kurjuudesta, kärsimysten terottamalla huomiollaan tajuten, kuinka
paljon siinä oli luonnon välttämättömyyttä ja kuinka paljon hoidon
lemmettömyyttä ja vaillinaisuutta. Tila oli täydellinen inferno. Aimon
aivot mittailivat unettomina öinä tätä kärsimysten pohjatonta merta;
oliko se välttämätöntä, oliko se ihmisjärjen arvoista? Eikö se
kuulunut siihen hyveettömyyden yöhön, joka pimeyteensä nielee
nykyiset suuret keksinnöt ja tieteen tulokset?
Viikot matelivat pitkinä ja katkerina. Hän mittasi minuutit, tunnit,
päivät ja viikot ja aika eteenpäin tuntui sietämättömän pitkältä.
Häneltä oli kielletty kaikki liikkuminen, heikkojen elinvoimien
käyttäminen ajatuksiinkaan. Ja estääkseen niitä itseään kiusaamasta
hän löi tahtia kellon naksutukselle äänettömästi toistaen: — la, la, la,
la!

Mutta kielteinen elämä nosti ankaria elämänkysymyksiä, siirsi
vanhan käsityksen siitä ja sen arvosta uuteen uraan. Kysymykseen:
mitä rakkaus on? — se vastasi tyynesti: elämän sunnuntaita, elämän
pohja, jos se on sopusointuista uhrautumista. Ja kysymykseen: mikä
on elämän päämäärä? se vastasi: työ!
Hän tunsi noutaneensa nämä vastaukset kuoleman portilta ja
niiden vanha totuus oli hänelle aivan uutta ja suurta tietoa, jonka
hän nyt tiesi muuttuvan eläväksi elämäkseen tinkimättä ja
suurimpana onnenaan.
Hän näki nyt selvästi erehtyneensä uskoessaan intohimojensa
sokeaan voimaan ja kiusatessaan itseään niillä. Hänen rakkautensa
Hermiaan oli ollut vain rakkauden varjo ja sellaisena voimaton ja
hedelmätön, kykenemätön jalostamaan Hermiaa taikka häntä
itseään.
Hän oli heikko, niin heikko, että kyyneleet valuivat hänen
kasvoilleen, kun tämä uusi vapautumisen tunne risteili hänessä. Ja
kuitenkin hän nyt tiesi omistavansa enemmän voimia kuin
terveytensä parhaina päivinä.
Hermia oli leikkauksen jälkeen käynyt Aimon huoneessa vain
lääkärin seurassa. Oli paljon sairaita ja leikkauksia, joissa hän aina oli
mukana, mutta sittenkin Aimo huomasi hänen välttelevän tahallaan.
Sitäpaitsi hän tuntui olevan jostakin syystä suunniltaan. Haavaa
puhdistettaessa Hermia ojensi aseita ja siteitä lääkärille ja tekeytyi
aivan kuin ei Aimoa olisi ollut ollenkaan, antoi Kaislalle loistavia
silmäyksiä ja puoliääneen lausuttuja sanoja.
Aimo nauroi sydämessänsä ja säälitteli Kaislaa, joka näytti ihan
sokeasti lentäneen hämähäkin verkkoon.

Aimo yritti kääntää Kaislan huomion muihin asioihin ja sanoi: —
Minä tahtoisin kylpeä. Olen ollut kahdeksan viikkoa pesemättä tässä
komeassa sairaalassa ja tunnen rintani, käsivarteni ja pääni
polttavan pelkästä likaisuudesta.
Kaisla katsoi häneen, katsoi Hermiaan. Hermian silmissä välähti ja
hänen leukansa paisui kaksinkertaiseksi.
— Ei ole nostajia, sanoi hän tylysti.
— Nostetaanhan täällä joka päivä ihmisiä huoneestaan
leikkauspöydälle ja sieltä pois.
— Sehän on aivan toista, sanoi Kaisla parka yhä silmäillen
Hermiaa.
Hermia hymyili jälleen ja näytti voivan erinomaisen hyvin.
Kasvojen tervettä, kellertävää väriä kohotti hänen pukunsa tumma
puna. Aimo ihmetteli vaatteen pohjatonta pehmeyttä. Se ikäänkuin
imi katseen itseensä ja piti sen levossa. Vaikka hän nyt katseli
Hermiaa toisilla silmillä kuin ennen, täytyi hänen myöntää ulkonaisen
loistavuuden ja sielullisen älyn tehneen lujan liiton vallottaakseen
ihmisiä. Tuo häikäisevä kauneus saattoi muuttua hurmaavaksi
viehkeydeksi milloin tahansa, kun vain ilmestyisi se oikea rosvo, joka
osaisi sanoa: sesam, sesam, aukene!
— Tohtori Vaski on hermostunut, sanoi Hermia.
— Olisiko se kumma? sanoi Aimo levollisesti.
— Puhutaan tästä joskus toiste, sanoi Kaisla ja avasi oven, mutta
pysähtyi kuin olisi unohtanut jotakin ja katsoi Hermiaan. Hermia ei
ollut huomaavinaan ja jäi huoneeseen Kaislan poistuttua.

— Noo, Aimo, kuinka nyt kuuluu?
— Niin, miltä minä näytän?
— Sangen pestyltä, vaikka Kaislalle kantelit. Se on turhaa vaivaa.
Minä määrään täällä. Lääkärit saavat tyytyä ja tyytyvät.
Aimo oli vähällä vastata purevasti silmäyksien voimasta, mutta
Hermia olisi voinut luulla sitä mustasukkaisuudeksi. Hän sanoi siis
vain:
— Miksi sinä rupesit sairaanhoitajaksi, et sinä siihen sovi.
— Niin sanoi minulle kirurgissa ylihoitajatarkin, kun kerran kaatelin
konjakkia miehen suuhun, joka oli maannut kuolleena kaksi tuntia.
Konjakki valui pitkin suupieliä ja minä luulin miehen ilkkuvan itseäni.
— Sinulla ei ollut tälle alalle tuotavana mitään uutta eikä sinulla ole
mitään vanhan ajan naisen hyvää puolta, tarkotan työn uskollisuutta
ja alttiutta.
— Sillä ei pitkälle pääsisi. En ole koskaan kysynyt, oliko minulla
taipumuksia. Olen hyvin terve ja sairaat ihmiset herättävät
uteliaisuuttani. Ja minä olen tyytyväinen, mitä enemmän sairautta ja
valitusta, sitä paremmin minä voin. Eiköhän se liene paras todistus
minun kelvollisuudestani sairaanhoitajana?
— Sitä en minä mene arvostelemaan, sanoi Aimo. Niinkuin täällä,
niin lienee muuallakin, ei parempaa eikä pahempaa.
— Näkisitpä sinä vaivaistalojen sairaalat ja yleiset sairaalat!
— Hyvyys ja säälintunne ovat karkotetut sairaaloista, tarkotat kai?

— Huiii, vihelteli Hermia, — kuka jaksaisi sääliä satoja sairaita? Ei,
kiitoksia. Jos ne olisivat sympaattisia — ehkä. Sinua voidaan kohdella
toisin…
— Ja kuitenkin olen minä kärsinyt enemmän huolimattomuudesta
ja lemmettömyydestä kuin kukaan täällä.
— Noin luulee jokainen sairas, he eivät vain uskalla siitä puhua,
sanoi Hermia katsoen sivulle.
— Eivät uskalla, miksei?
— He makaavat voimattomina vuoteillaan, täydellisesti meidän
vallassamme! sanoi Hermia ja puristi kätensä nyrkkiin. — Minä olen
vallanhimoinen ja kostonhimoinen!
Hän nauroi ja silmät loistivat sisäisestä voimasta.
— Minulla on sellainen valtava halu kiduttaa sinua kertomalla
itsestäni kauheuksia, purkaa kaikki pirullisuuteni.
— Se kuuluu kai kostonhimoosi.
— Ehkä, mutta minä tiedän, että sinä pysyt vaiti.
— Mistä sinä sen tiedät?
— Sinä rakastat minua.
— Parasta on olla siitä puhumatta.
Hermia vilkaisi Aimoon, hymyili ja jatkoi: — Tiedätkö, kuinka olen
saanut tämän sairaalan?

— Mahdotonta tietää sellaista.
— Meitä oli ensin kaksi. Eräs naislääkäri pani tämän alkuun, mutta
hänen täytyi väistyä.
— Sinun tieltäsi.
— Niin, hän yritti kyllä hyvällä ja kovalla saada tästä
ihannesairaalaa ja torui minua joka päivä telefonissa. Minä laskin
puhetorven hiljaa koukulle ja annoin hänen torua. Hän toi sairaita.
Minä ihmettelin, miksi he olivat valinneet sellaisen lääkärin. Sairaat
menivät toiselle lääkärille. Tohtori parka väsyi ja möi tappiolla
osansa, siirtyi toiseen kaupunkiin ja siellä hän menestyy hyvin. —
Minkä pahalle voi, parasta on olla siihen koskematta.
— Et usko, kuinka sellainen virkistää.
— Onpa sinulla erinomainen tapa urheilla nujertamalla
ihmisparkoja.
— Oo, ei se nyt niin aivan jokapäiväistä urheilua ole. Ainoastaan
jos se hyvin kannattaa, jos…
— Noo…?
— Tiedätkö sinä, miksi saat maata yhdeksän viikkoa, vaikka koko
juttu piti olla selvä kolmessa?
— En oikein.
— Otaksutko jotakin?
— Minä en tahdo sitä ajatella.

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Tropical Fruits 2nd Edition Robert E Paull Odilio Duarte

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Tropical Fruits 2nd Edition Robert E Paull Odilio Duarte

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