Volatile oils

complete chapter of volatile oils that comes under the pharmacognosy. the ppt gives details study of all volatile oils in a particular manners which help the students to learn more in a simple way of learning.

1. VOLATILE OILS

2. Introduction
Theodorousvolatileprinciplesofplantandanimal
sourcesareknownasvolatileoils.
Astheyevaporatewhenexposedtoairatordinary
temperatures,theyarealsocalledasetherealoils.
Theyrepresentessenceoractiveconstituentsofplant,
hencetheyarealsocalledasessentialoils.
Theyarederivedfromterpenesandtheiroxygenated
compounds.
Theyaremadeupofisopreneunits(C5H8)andusually
mono,sesquiandditerpene

3. Occurrence
Secretedinspecialstructuressuchasduct,cell,
schizogenousorlysigenousglands,trichomesetc.
CommonlyfoundinfamilylikeLabiatae,Rutaceae,
Piperaceae,Zingiberaceae,Umbelliferae,Myrtaceaeand
Lauraceae

4. Composition
Mixtureofhydrocarbonandoxygenatedcompounds
Derivedfromhydrocarbon
OdorandTasteofvolatileoilismainlydeterminedby
oxygenatedcompounds.
Oilsareterpenoidsinnature
CinnamonandClovecontainprincipallyaromatic
(benzene)derivativesmixedwithterpene
ThymolandCarvacolalthougharomaticinstructureare
terpenoidinnature.

5. Chemistry
ChemicalProperty:
Characteristicodour
Solubleinalcohol,etherandotherlipidsolventsand
practicallyinsolubleinwater.
Lighterthanwater(except:cloveoil)
PhysicalProperty:
Highrefractiveindex
Opticallyactive
TerpenelessVolatileoil:Theyarevolatileoilwhichare
processedtoremovehydrocarbonandundesired
componentsbyfractionaldistillation.

6. Origin
•In few cases the volatile oil does not pre-exist, but is
formed by the decomposition of a glycoside.
1.Whole mustard seeds are odorless but up on crushing the
seeds and adding water to it a strong odor is evolved, this
is due to allyl isothiocyante(the main constituent of
essential oil of mustard) formed by decomposition of a
glycoside, sinigrin, by an enzyme myrosin.
2.Bitter almond oil (decomposition of glycoside)
3.Roots (Vetiver)
4.Bark (Cinnamon)
5.Heart wood (Sandal wood)
6.Leaves (Peppermint)
7.Seeds (Nutmeg)
8.Flowers (Canaga& Jasmine)

7. General method of Extraction
Steamdistillation,Solventextractionandmechanicalmeanssuchas
EuelleandEffleuragetechniques.
Hydro-distillation:Waterdistillation,waterandsteamdistillation,leaf
drug(Hydrodistillation),airdriedsubterraneanpartsextractedby
steamdistillation.
Effleurage:extractionofdelicateperfumes
Thefreshflowerpetalsaremechanicallyspreadonlayeroffatty
material,allowedtoimbibingandtheexhaustedpetalsreplacedby
freshmaterial.Theprocessiscontinuedtillthefattylayeris
saturatedwithvolatileprincipleswhicharethenextractedwithlipid
solvents.
Thepneumaticmethod:involvesthepassageofacurrentofwarm
airthroughtheflowers.Theair,ladenwithsuspendedvolatileoil,is
pssedthroughasprayofmeltedfatinwhichthevolatileoilis
absorbed.

8. Effleurage
Ecuelle
Pointed
projection

9. General method of Extraction
Digestion: The flowers are gently heated in melted fat
until exhausted, when they are stained out and the
perfume containing fat is allowed to cool. The fatty base
is extracted with alcohol.
Ecuelle: Extraction of citrus oils, wherein oil cells in rind
are ruptured mechanically using pointed projections by
twisting raw material over them in clockwise direction
either mechanically or manually.
Liquid Carbon dioxide:LCO is used to extract essential
oils. Liquefied under pressure, it acts as a solvent
reserving back to gaseous nature when pressure is
reduced leaving no residue of solvent.

10. Therapeutic Uses
•Therapeutically(EucalyptusOil)
•Flavouring(Lemon)
•Perfumery(Rose)
•Carminative(Clove)
•Inhalation(Eucalyptusoil)
•Orally(Peppermint)
•Gargle&Mouthwash(Thymol)duetohighphenolinterferes
withbacterialrespiration
•Transdermal(Lavender,Rosemary)
•Antimicrobial(Basil-Tulsi)
•Startingmaterialstosynthesizeothercompounds(Oil)
•Anti-spasmodic (Ginger,Lemon balm,Rosemary,
Peppermint,Chamomile,Fennel,Caraway)
•Aromatherapy

11. Role of Volatile Oil
Inmostcases,the
biologicalfunctionofthe
terpenoidsofessential
oilsremainsobscure–
itisthoughtthatthey
playanecologicalrole–
protectionfrom
predators&attractionof
pollinators.

12. Source
Synthesis&accumulationofessentialoilsare
generallyassociatedwiththepresenceof
specializedhistologicalstructures,oftenlocatedon
or near the surface of the plant:
-OilcellsofZingiberaceae
-GlandulartrichomesofLamiaceae
-SecretorycavitiesofMyrtaceaeorRutaceae
-SecretorycanalsofApiaceaeorAstereraceae
(Compositeae)

13. Chemical composition
Volatileoilsaredividedinto2mainclassesbasedontheir
biosyntheticorigin
i.Terpenederivatives(formedviatheacetatemevalonic
acidpathway)
ii.Aromaticcompounds(formedviatheshikimicacid-
phenylpropanoidroute)
iii.MiscellaneousOrigin

14. Classification
Hydrocarbon (C-H)
1. Turpentine: alpha and beta pinene
Alcohol (-OH)
1.Peppermint: Menthol
2.Cardamom: alpha-terpineol, Borneol
3.Rose: Nerol

15. Classification
Aldehyde (-CHO)
1.Lemon peel: Citral
2.Orange peel: Citral
3.Lemongrass: Citral(Highest)
Ketone (C=O)
1.Camphor: Camphor
2.Spearmint: Carvone

16. Classification
Ester (C=O-O)
1.Oil of wintergreen: Methyl salicylate
Ether (=O)
1.Eucalyptus oil: Cineole
Misc.
1.Sandalwood: alpha-beta santalol(sesqui)
2.Saussurea: Costulactone
3.Star anise: Anethole
4.Jatamansi: Jatamansone
5.Valerian: Valepotriates
6.Vetiver: Vetivone, Vetiverol

17. Classification
Phenyl propanoids: (C6H5-C3H7)
1.Cinnamon: Cinnamic aldehyde
2.Cassia cinnamon: Cinnamic aldehyde
3.Clove: Eugenol
4.Nutmeg: Myristicin, Elemicin, Saffrole

18. Umbelliferae
•Mostmembersareherbswithfurrowedstemsand
hollowinternodes
•Leavesarelargeandhaveasheathingbaseandmuch
dividedlamina
•Flowersaresmallandarrangedinsimpleorcompound
umbels.
•5lobedcalyx,5petals,5stamens,aninferior2celled
ovary
•Fruitiscremocarp,frequentlycrownedwithastigma
bearingdiscknownasstylopodium

20. •Whenripe,twomericarpseparatefromoneanotherbut
frequentlyremainattachedtothesimpleofforked
carpophorewhichliesbetweenthem.
•Thelineseparatingthetwomericarpisknownasthe
commissure.
•Eachmericarpscontainssingleseedwhichconsistsof
alargeendosperm,whichhasasmallembryo
embeddedinitneartheapex
•5primaryridgescontainingfibrovascularbundlerun
frombasetoapexinthepericarp,andsecondaryridges
sometimesalternatewiththese

21. •Betweentheridgesareschizogenousoleoresincanals
knownasVittae
•Membersofthefamily,differinthetnumberand
arrangementofthevittaeineachmericarp,but6in
common,4ondorsaland2oncommissural

23. 1. Anise
•Source:dried,ripefruitsofPimpinellaanisum
•Family:Umbelliferae
•Distribution:Levant(native)butcultivatedin
bothinEurope(Spain,Germany,Italy,Russia,
Bulgaria),EgyptandAmerica(Chile,Mexico).
•SpainandEgyptaretheprincipalproducersoftheoil.
•Constituents:Anethol,Anethal,Methylchavicol,2-3%of
volatileoilwhichisalmostidenticalwiththatobtained
fromstaranisefruits.
•Watersolubleglucosidesp-hydroxybenzoicacid
•Use:anethole(spasmolytic)-stimulatesrespiratory
secretionsandexpectoration,dentifrice

24. Anise Oil
BP/EPtestsandstandardsfortheoilinclude:
TLCidentificationofanetholeandanisaldehyde;
maximumlimitof0.1%forfenchoneand0.01%for
foeniculin;transanethole87-94%;estragole0.5-5%,
anisaldehyde1-1.4%andlinalool<1.5%

25. History of Caraway
•Carawayseedshavebeenusedsincethebeginningof
time.Itwasonceusedtoprotectchildrenfromwitches
andisthoughttoinhibitfickleness.Theyareastapleof
Germancookingandusedbymanylikeanafter-dinner
mint.
•TheoriginsofthenamecarawaycomefromtheArabic
al-karwiyaseeds;whichsomepresumeistheoriginof
theLatinwordcarviandfromCaria(Turkey),where
carawaymayhavefirstbeenused.

26. 2. Caraway
•Source:driedripefruitsofCarumcarvi
•Family:Umbelliferae
•Distribution:Europe(TheNetherlands,Denmark,
Germany,Russia,Finland,Poland,HungaryandBritain)
andinEgypt,Morocco,AustraliaandChina.
•Constituents:3-7%Volatileoil(BP-NLT3%)-Carvone,
Limonene,Dihydrocarvone,tracesofcarvacol,8-20%of
fixedoil,proteins,Caloxalate,coloringmatter,resin
•Use:culinarypurpose,flavoringagent–bread,biscuits,
cheeseandcake,carminative,antispasmodic

27. Caraway Oil
•Thevolatileoil(carawayoilBP/EP)consistslargelyof
theketonecarvoneandtheterpenelimonenewithsmall
quantitiesofdihydrocarvone,carveoland
dihydrocarveol.
•Asthereisademandforpurecarvone,thereisa
considerableamountofdecarbonizedoilavailablefor
adulteration.
•Theproportionsofindividualcomponentsarerequiredto
fallwithincertainlimitsasdeterminedbyGC:Limonene
(30-45%),Carvone(50-65%),betamyrcene(0.1-1%)
withmax.limitsoftransdihydrocarvoneandtrans
carveolboth2.5%

29. History of Dill
•DillisnativetoEasternEurope,theMediterranean,
southernRussia,andwesternAfrica(GMF).
•ThenamedillisthoughttohaveoriginatedfromaNorse
orAnglo-Saxonword'dylle'meaningtosootheorlull,the
planthavingthecarminativepropertyofrelievinggas.
•InsomeEnglish-speakingcountries,dillissometimes
calleddillby.InsomeAsianlocallanguagesitiscalledas
"shepu"or"sowa

30. 3. Dill
•Source:driedripefruitsofAnethumgraveolens
(Europe),Anethumsowa(India)NLT2%ofVolatileoil
•Family:Umbelliferae
•Distribution:native(Mediterraneanregion,southern
Russia,Italy,SpainandPortugal
•Cultivation:
-Sowingmethod(Fruit)
-Soil:Sandyloamsoildevoidofgraves,withslightlyacidic
nature
-Weather:Cold
-Sowingperiod:October
-Harvesting:March/April

31. Collection:
umbelscollectedafterfullmaturity,
-Driedthoroughlyandshakentoseparatethefruits.
-Fruitsaresieved,excessofforeignorganicmatteris
removedandthenpackedinthebags.
Morphology:
•Color: Yellowish or pale brown with narrow wings
•Odor: Aromatic and characteristic
•Fruits are found in the form of mericarps usually
separated and free from pedicel.

32. •Constituents:
•2.4to4%volatileoil,20%fixedoilandprotein
•volatileoilisanaromaticliquidconsistingofamixtureof
paraffinHCand40-60%ofd-carvonealongwithd-
limoneneandotherterpene.
•USE:stimulant,aromatic,carminativeandstomachic
Flatulenceofinfant,vehicleforchildren’smedicine,
perfumingsoaps

34. 4. Ajowan
•Source:driedripeseedsofTrachyspermumammi
•Family:Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)
•Distribution:Egypt(native),grownthroughoutIndia,
south-westAsiancountrieslikeIraq,Iran,Afghanistan
andPakistan.
•Constituents:volatileoil(2-3.5%),17.1%protein,21.8%
fat.
AjwonOil-colorlessorbrownishyellowliquidpossessinga
characteristicodorofthymolandasharptaste.
-principalconstituentsofoilsaremainlyphenol,mainly
thymol(35-60%),carvacol,para-cymene,gamma-
terpinene,alpha&betapineneanddipentene.
-fattyoiliscomposedofpalmitic,petroselinic,oleic,linoleic
and5,6-octa-decanoicacid.

35. Use:
•Widelyusedasspiceincurries,pickles,certaintypesof
biscuits,confectionariesandinbeverages.
•Itisgiveninflatulence,atonicdyspepsia,diarrheaand
cholera.
•Oilisusedanantiseptic,aromatic,disinfectantsoaps
andasaninsecticide.

36. History of Fennel
•FennelwaswellknowntotheAncientsandwas
cultivatedbytheancientRomansforitsaromaticfruits
andsucculent,edibleshoots.Plinyhadmuchfaithinits
medicinalproperties,accordingnolessthantwenty-two
remediestoit,observingalsothatserpentseatitwhen
theycasttheiroldskins,andtheysharpentheirsight
withthejuicebyrubbingagainsttheplant.
•Theroleoffennelinreligiousmanifestationsis
assimilatedtoameaningofrebirthandspirit
regeneration.

37. 5. Bitter Fennel
•Source:driedripefruitsofFoeniculumvulgaresubsp.
Vulgare,var.vulgare,NLT0.6%ofanethole
•Family:Umbelliferae
•Distribution:Europe(Russia,Romania,Germany,
France),India,Japan.India:GJ,PB,MH,RJ,UP,WB
-Thecommercialdrugconsistspartlyofwholecremocarp
andpartlyofisolatedmericarps.
•Constituents:3-7%Volatileoil,20%Protein,Fixedoil,
chiefconstituentisketone(Fenchone20%),Phenolic
ether(anethole50%),phellandrene,limonene,methyl
chavicol,anisicaldehyde
•Use:aromatic,carminative,stimulant,flavoringagent
andasexpectorant

38. Sweet fennel
-Source:derivedfromF.vulgaresubsp.Vulgare;var.
dulceIncludedinBP/EP
-Fruitsresemblethoseofthebittervarietybuthavea
sweettasteandlowervolatileoilcontent(NLT2%).
-NLT80%oftheoilisrequiredtobeanethole,NMT7.5%
fenchone,andNMT10%estragole.
-Morphology:Color:GreentoYellowishbrown,Odor:
Sweet,aromatic,Taste:Stronglyaromatic

40. Cultivation
•Method:Dibbling(makingsmallholesinthegroundfor
seedsorplants)
•Sowingperiod(bestquality):Beforespring(Jan-Feb)
•Plentyofspacesbetweentworowsandtwoplants
•4-5seeds,distance:25cminbetween
•Soil:welldrained,calcareous
•Weather:sunny
•Fertilizer:suitable,bearflowersin2
nd
yr
•India:90%productionfromGujarat
•Collection:whenripe,harvestingdone,SUNdryingand
separatedbythrashing

43. Constituents & Uses
Adulterants:
1.Thefruitsfromwhichvolatileoil
isremovedbytreatingwith
alcohol,containless%ofvolatile
oilandhaveatypicalodourof
fuseloil.Suchfruitsdon'tcontain
fenchone.
2.Ifthefruitsareexhaustedby
theapplicationofsteam,theylook
darkgreenish-brownincolourand
containonlytracesofvolatileoil
andsinkinwater.

45. 6. Coriander
•Syn:Dhania,Cilatro,Chineseparsley
•Source:driedripefruitsofCoriandrumsativum
•Family:Umbelliferae
•Distribution:Europe,Africa,India(MH,UP,RJ,JK)
•Cultivation:
•kharif(rabi)crop
•Soil:heavyblack
•Light:sufficient
•Qty:15-20kgfruitperhectre
•Sowing:Drillingmethod,rotationwithwheat,grain,jowar
andonionandgrownalongwithcotton,sugarcane,
brinjalasmixedcrop
•Harvesting:after100daysofgrowth(Rajasthanis
highestwith70%productioninIndia)

47. •Storage: thoroughly dried and stored in well closed
containers as they are highly prone to insects.
•Morphology:
•Color: Yellowish brown to brown
•Odor: Aromatic
•Taste: Spicy and Characteristic
•Substitutes: Bombay coriander-ellipsoidal in shape and
having lesser volatile oil

50. •Constituents:1%ofvolatileoil,chiefcomponentsareD-
linalool(coriandrol),coriandrylacetatealongwithother
constituentslikeborneol,paracymene,camphor,
geraniol,limonene,alphapinene.
•LeavesrichinVitaminA
•Trans-tridec-2-enaleisresponsibleforsmell
•fattyoilandhydroxycoumarins
•fattyoil-petrosolicacid,oleicacid,linoleicacid
•Hydroxycoumarins:umbelliferone,scopoletine,geranyl
acetate,deranal,

51. •Use:aromatic,carminative,stimulant,anti-spasmodic,
diaphoreticandflavoringagent,refrigerant,tonic,
appetizer,aphrodisiac
•appliedexternallyinrheumatismandpainfuljoints
•Ingredientofcompoundspiritoforangeandcascara
elixir

53. 7. Cumin
•Syn:Jeera
•Source:driedripefruitsofCuminumcyminum
•Family:Umbeliferae
•GS:IndigenoustoNileterritory,Morocco,Syria,China,
Sicily,India–allstatesexceptAS,WB(mostGJ,RJ)
•Constituents:Volatileoil,Fixedoil,Protein
•Main–cuminaldehyde,smallquantitiesofpinene,
phellandrene,cuminicalcohol,hydrocuminin
•Use:Stimulant,Carminative,DyspepsiaandDiarrhoea

54. History of Cumin
•OriginallyfromIran
•Thehistoryofcumingoesbackover5000years.The
ancientEgyptiansuseditasaspiceinfoodsaswellas
inthemummificationprocess.TheGreeksandRomans
usedcuminasaspiceandalsoapplieditformedicinal
purposes.Interestingly,itwasusedtomakethe
complexionmorepale

56. 8. Hydrocarbon Volatile Oil:
Turpentine Oil
•Source:Volatileoilobtainedbydistillationfromoleoresin
ofPinusroxburghi,Pinuslongifolia,Pinuspalustris
andotherspeciesofPinus
•Family:Pinaceae
•GS:India,US,France,Russia
•Constituent:40%terpene,mainlyalphaterpene,beta
terpene,camphene,betaphellandrene,delta-3-carene,
limoneneetc.
•Use:Counterirritant,rubefacient,weakantiseptic,
expectorant,chronicbronchitis,
•Industry:mfg.ofpineoil,disinfectant,denaturants,
insecticides,paintsandvarnish.

57. Extraction method
•Inthefirstmethod,suitableno.ofblazesaremadewhile
insecondmethodheavytapping(tappingtodeath)is
doneandresiniscollected.Inseveralcases,itis
continuedfor8-10years.Thetappingproduces
schizogenousducts.Theoleoresinwhichcomesoutof
theplantiscollectedinearthenwareorinsuitable
containers.Thecrudeoleoresinispurifiedbyheatingin
asteamjacketedvesselwithspiralmixer.Vegetable
debrisandmaterialslikesandandotherparticlesare
removedbysettlingorfloating.Theclarifiedresinisthen
takentothedistillationplant.

58. Extraction method
•TheoilisredistilledaftertreatmentwithNaOHorlime
watertoremoveresins,acids,phenolsetc.Itisthen
dehydratedwithcommonsaltorsodiumsulphateand
storedinsuitablecontainers.Theoleo-resinproduces
appro.25%ofturpentineoiland70%ofcolophony.The
turpentineoilproducedafterchemicaltreatmentbyalkali
isknownasrectifiedturpentineoil.About70%ofworld
productionisfromUS.

59. ALCOHOL VOL OIL DRUGS

61. 9. Peppermint Oil
•Syn:brandymint
•Source:oilobtainedfromdriedleavesby
distillationofMenthapiperita(Hybridof
M.spicata+M.aquatica)
•Distribution:Europe,US,DampplacesofUK,
India:JKandTarai-UP
•2Varieties:M.piperitavar.vulgarisSole
(black)
M.Piperitavar.officinalisSole(White)
•Constituent:4.5-10%Menthylacetate,NLT
44%Menthol,15-32%Menthone,1-5%
limonene,3.5-14%limonene,3.5-14%
Cineole,14-32%Carvone

62. •Mentholconcentration:Japan85%,UK60-70%,USA
50%
•Use:insickness&nausea,respiration,hysteria&CNS
disorders,midantiseptic
•(medicinalValueisdueto:alcohol)

63. 10. CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL
Syn:Ilaychi
Source:dried,nearlydriedripe
fruitsofElettariacardamomum
Var.miniscula
Family:Zingiberaceae
PARTSUSED:Seeds(should
bekeptinthefruituntilreadyto
beused–Preventslossof
volatileoils).
(oneofthemostexpensive
spice).

64. Elettaria cardamomum
•GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
•SriLanka
•SouthernIndia-Alleppy
•Guatemala
•HISTORY
•TraditionalIndianceremonies
•MULCHING:aprotectivecovering
(asofsawdust,compost,orpaper)
spreadorleftonthegroundto
reduceevaporation,maintaineven
soiltemperature,preventerosion,
controlweeds,enrichthesoil,or
keepfruitclean

66. CULTIVATION
•Soil:fullofmoisture,welldrained
•Mulchingisdone:layerofmaterialappliedtoconserve
moisture
•Rainfall:150-600cm,Altitude:600-1600m
•Temp:10to38degreeC
•Sowing:Broadcastingmethod,Period:August-October
•Germinationtime:7-8week,poor,Maturity:3
rd
yearof
germination
•Collection:beforefruitsgetsmatured
•Drying:Sunandartificial,Sun:bleachingduetotemp.
•Artificial:colourwillbeintact
•Bleaching:SO2toimprovecolour
•Cardamomact1965toimprovecultivation

67. COLLECTION & PREPARATION
•Fruitsaredriedslowly
(outdoorsorindoors).
•Toorapiddrying–capsules
split&shedseeds
•Calyxattheapexofthestalk
andthestalkatthebasemay
beremoved.
•Fruitsaregradedwithasift
into‘longs’,‘mediums’,
‘shorts’&‘tiny’.
•Iftheyhavebeensulphur–
bleached(improvedcolour),
itwillbeairedoutdoors
beforepackedfortransport.

68. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
•Plantisreed-like->4m,withlongleavesgrowingfrom
therhizome.
•Fruits–capsular:inferior,ovoid,1-2cmlong.
•Apex:shortlybeaked&showsfloralremains.
•Base:rounded&showstheremainofastalk.
•Internallythecapsuleis3-celled;eachcellcontainsx2
rowofseeds.
•Eachseed:Slightlyangular,4mmlong&3mmbroad.
•Colour:darkred-brown(fullyripeseeds)palerinunripe
seeds.
•Strong,pleasant,aromaticodour
•Pungenttaste

69. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
•Oilcells
•PredominantParenchyma(yellowcolour)
•Cellscontainingsilica
•Epidermalcells
•Perisperm(starchgrains)

73. VARIETIES & ADULTERANTS
•ADULTERATION
•Powdereddrugadulteratedwiththefruitpericarp
(powdered).
•ALLIEDHERBS
•Officialvariety–E.cardamomumvarminiscula
•Other:E.cardamomumvarmajor(moreelongated&
sometimes4cmlongwithdarkbrownpericarps)
•Amomumaromaticum(Bengalcardamom)
•Amomumsubulatum(Nepalcardamom)
•Amomumcardamomum(Javacardamom)

74. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
•2-8%volatileoil(BP-NLT4%)
•Abundantstarch(upto50%)
•Fixedoil(1–10%)
•Protein
•Calciumoxalate
•OIL
•Terpinylacetate,Terpineol,Borneol
•Active:Cineole
•Monoterpenes(alcohol+ester)

75. ACTIONS & USES
•Flavouringagent(curries&
biscuits)
•Liqueurmanufacture
•Smallamountisusedfor
pharmaceuticalmanufacture
(Compound Tinctureof
Cardamom).
•Aromatic,Carminative

76. 11. Rose
•Syn:Rosae,Gulab
•Source:flowersofRosadamascena,
R.gallica,R.alba,R.centifolia
•Family:Rosaceae
•Distribution:Bulgaria,Turkey,Morocco
•Constituent:15-20%satdaliphatic
hydrocarbons(C14-C27),geraniol,
citronellol,nerol,2-phenylethanol
•Use:perfumeindustry

77. ALDEHYDE VOL OIL DRUGS

78. 12. Lemon peel Oil
•Syn:Cortexlimonis,Limonine,Citrus
medica,Nimboo
•Source:oilobtainedfromfreshor
driedouterpartofpericarpofripeor
incompletelyripefruitsofCitrus
limonis
•Family:Rutaceae
•Distribution:indigenoustoNorthern
India&wildlycultivatedin
MediterraneancountrieslikeSpain,
Portugal&Florida,California,
Australia,Jamaica,Italy

79. •Constituent:
•Peelcontains:Hesperidin,Pectin
•Volatileoil:90%Limonene,4%Citral,Geranylacetate,
Terpineol
•ChemicalTest:solutionofrecentlyexpressedoilisadded
to3volumesofalcohol,itsneutraloronlyslightlyacidic
tolitmuspaper.
•Use:
•Externally:Rubefacient
•Internally:Stimulating&Carminativeproperties
•ExtractionofPectinandVolatileoil

80. 13. Orange-peel Oil
•Syn:Citrusvulgaris,Citrusaurantium,Bitter
Orange,BigaradeOrange
•Source:oilobtainedfromfreshordriedpart
ofpericarpoftheCitrusaurantium
•Family:Rutaceae
•Distribution:India,China,Spain,Madeira,
Sicily,Malta,Morocco
•Constituent:
•Peel:Hesperidin,Iso-Hesperidin,Neo-
Hesperidin,VitaminC,Pectin
•Bittersubstances:Aurantiamarin&
Aurantimaricacid
•Voloil:90%Limonene,Citral,Citronellal

81. •ChemicalTest:solutionofrecentlyexpressedoilin
dehydratedalcoholisneutraltomoistenedlitmus
paper.
•Use:
•Stomachic,Aromatic,Carminative
•Flavouringagent,usedinoilofTurpentineinchronic
bronchitis,non-irritanttokidneysandpleasantto
take.
•Terpenelessorangeoilispreferredcommerciallyas
aflavouringagentbecauseofstrongerflavour,
readilysolubilityinnaturaloil

82. 14. Lemon grass
•Syn:EastIndian&westIndianlemongrass
•CommonName:Gouticha,Lilicha
•Source:freshleavesofCymbopogoncitratus&
C.flexuosus
•Family:Graminae
•Distribution:IndigenoustoIndia,cultivatedinAfricaand
Guatemala.India:KL,TN,KA,MH,PB)
•Constituents:chieflyCitral,nerol,citronellal,geraniol,
newterpenoid:cymbopogone,cymbopogonol
•Use:perfumery&cosmeticindustry,mosquitorepellant,
Indiaisprincipleproduceroflemongrassoilforcitral
content.SourceofCitral,fromwhichbetaionineis
prepared,tosynthesizeVitaminA(Alleppey-VitAplant)

83. KETONE VOL OIL DRUGS

85. 15. Spearmint Oil
•Syn:Pudina,Mint
•Source:driedleafandfloweringtopsofMentha
spicata(M.viridis)andMenthacardiaca
•Family:Labiatae
•Distribution:Mediterraneanregion,America&
Asia
BPOilpreparedbysteamdistillation
•Constituent:NLT55%Carvone,2-25%Limonene,
phellandrene,esters
•Use:Carminative,flavoringagent-toothpaste,
mouthwash,chewinggum,saucesm,Cosmetic

87. 16. Camphor Oil
•Source:oilobtainedfromthewoodbysteamdistillation
ofCinnamomumcamphora
•Family:Lauraceae
•GS:EasternAsia,Taiwan,Japan,China
•Methodofpreparation:
•Thewoodisreducedtosmallpiecesofchipsand
subjectedtosteamdistillation.
•Distillationisperformedat80-100psi
•Crudeoilthisobtainedispurifiedbysublimation
•Yield:1kgofcrudecamphorisobtainedfrom40-50kg
chipsofcrudedrug.

88. •Constituents:Safrole,Anisaldehyde,Dipentene,
camphoreugenol,d-pinene,eucalyptol,phellandrene
andcineole
•isolatedfromcamphoroilbychillingorsynthesizingfrom
pinene.
•colourless,crystallinesolidgranularmassknownas
flowerofcamphor.
•penetratingcharacteristicodourandaromaticpungent
taste,followedbysensationofcold,slowlyvaporizesat
RT
•Naturalisdextrorotatory,synthetic:raceme

89. •ChemicalTest:Powderednaturalcamphor+1:100
(Vanillin+Sulphuricacid)–yellowcolour,changingto
red,violetandfinallyblue.
•syntheticcamphordidn'tgivethistest.
•Use:rubefacient,counterirritant,flavouringagentin
soapandtoothpowderandcosmeticpreparation.
•Storage:wellclosedcontainerawayfromlightandcool
conditions

90. ESTER VOL OIL DRUG

91. 17. Winter green Oil
•Syn:Gaultheriaoil,Sweetbirchoil
•Source:Oilobtainedfromsteam
distillationfromtheleavesofGaultheria
procumbens
•Family:Ericaceae
•Distribution:Northamerica,USA,
Canada,
•India(Khasihills,westernghats,Nilgiri)
•Constituents:1.5%ofessentialoil,
•98%Methylsalicylate-formedby
hydrolysisofglycosideinGaultherinin
presenceofwaterbynaturallyoccuring
enzymegaultherase.

92. •Enanthic alcohol and its ester show characteristic odor
due to which natural gaultheria oil can be distinguished
from synthetic methyl salicylate.
•Chemical test:
•oil + 5% solution of vanillin in 90% alcohol + alcohol –
blood red colour produced
•Another source of gaultheria oil is optically inactive
while natural is slightly levo rotatory.
•Uses: Rheumatism, Counter irritant, effective wormicide-
hook worm, flavouring agent,

93. ETHER VOL OIL DRUG

95. 18.Eucalyptus Oil
•Syn:Nilgiri
•Source:eucalyptusleafoftheEPandBPconsistsof
wholeorcutdriedleavesoftheolderbranchesof
Eucalyptusglobulus
•Family:Myrtaceae
•Eucalyptustreespossess2kindsofleaves,Thoseon
youngplantsbeingcordateandsessile
•Whereasthoseonmaturetreeswhichconstitutethe
officialdrugarepetioleandscimitarshaped.
•Thedriedleavesaregreyish-brownincolor,coriaceous
(leather)intextureandhavelateralveinswhich
anastomose(link)nearthemargin.

96. •Secretoryoilglandsarevisibleinleavesheldtothelight.
•Microscopyshowsepidermalcellswiththickcuticle,
anomocyticstomata,togetherwithmesophyllhaving
schizogenousoilglandsandprismsandclustercrystals
ofCalciumoxalate
•TheleavesarerequiredtocontainNLT2%v/wof
essentialoil
•havelimitsof3%fordarkandbrownleaves
•5%stemsand2%forotherforeignmatter
•Significantcomponentsoftheleavesarephloroglucinol-
sesquiterpenecoupledcompoundsnamemacrocarpals,
whichshowantibacterialactivityagainstoralpathogenic
m/sandinhibitionofglycosyltransferaseactivity.
•Suchsubstancescouldhavepotentialinthe
maintenanceoforalhygiene.

97. •Onlyacertainnumberofspeciesproduceoilssuitable
formedicinaluse,asthechiefrequirementsareahigh
contentofCineoleandabsenceofappreciablequantities
ofPhellandreneandaldehyde.
•SuitableoilarederivedfromE.polybractea,E.smithii,
E.globulusandE.australiana.
•Incaseofthelatterspeciestheoilusedinpharmacyis
thatcollectedduringthe1
st
hourofthedistillation.
•Citronscentedeucalyptusoilwhichisderivedfrom
E.citriodora,isusedinperfumeryandcontainsahigh
proportionofthealdehydecitronellal.

98. Volatile Oil distillation

99. Extraction of Oil
•Thetreesof16yrs.ofagearepreferredforthe
collectionofleaves
•About750-1200kgofleavesarecollectedperhectare.
•Theleavesaredriedinshadeforabout3daysand
subjectedtosteamdistillation.
•Unitismadeupofbottomoffalseperforatedcopper.
•Sufficientwaterisplacedandsteamunderpressureis
passedthroughit.
•6hoursforcompletedistillation
•rectifiedwithNaOH

100. •Characters:
•colorlessorpaleyellowliquid.
•aromaticandcamphoraceousodor,pungenttastewhich
isfollowedbyasensationofcold.
•Constituents:NLT70%ofcineole,pinene,camphene
•1,8-cineoleando-cresolformasolidcomplexandthe
crystallizingtemperatureofthisformstheofficialassay
oftheoil.
•Industrialeucalyptusoildoesn’tcontaincitronellal.
•Chemicaltest:oil+petroleumbenzin+NaNO2+GAA–
noimmediatecrystalformationin10min.

101. •Use:
•alleviatingsymptomsofnasopharyngealinfections
•fortreatingcoughsandasadecongestant
•takeninternallyintheformofmixture,inhalations,
lozengesandpastilles
•appliedexternallyasointmentandlinimentscounter
irritantandantiseptic.

102. Misc. category

103. 19. Sandal Wood
(sesquiterpene)
•Syn:Chandan
•Source:heartwoodofSantalumalbum
•Family:Santalaceae
•Distribution:India(KA),Malaysia
•Constituents:95%isomericsesquiterpenealcohol,
alpha&beta-Santalol,Santene,Santenone,
Teresantol,Santalone,Santalene
•oilispresentinelementsofwood&notpresentinor
secretedbyanyspecialtypesofcellsorglands.
•Use:Symptomatictreatmentofdysurea,dimishing
frequencyofmicturinationinTBofbladder.Perfumery
industry,Incensestick&cosmetic

105. 20. Saussurea (sesquiterpene)
.
•Syn:Costus,Kuth
•Source:driedrootsofSaussurealappa
•Family:Compositae
•Distribution:Himalaya,JK,UP(2500-3000maltitude)
•Constituents:6%resinoids,1.5%essentialoil,18%
inulin,0.5%alkaloid,fixedoil,tracesofTanninand
sugar
•Volatileoil:costulactone,dihydrolactone,camphene,
sesquiterpene,alcohol,Alkaloid:Saussurine,Kusthin:
Isolated

106. •Use:bronchialAsthma,Expectorant,asanessence,
powerfulinsecticide,antiseptic,disinfectantagainst
Streptococcus&Staphylococcus
•IndiaisexportingtoJapan,France,HongKong
•Beingvcostly,beingadulteratedwithVetiveroil
•Carminative,Stimulant,Skindisease,rheumatism
Camphene

107. 21. Star anise
•Source:driedfruitsofIlliciumverum
•Family:Illiciaceae
•Distribution:China,Vietnam
•Specification:consistsof8(rarely7or9)oneseeded
follicles
•Constituents:7%volatileoil,NLT86%anethole,
•Anisaldehyde(0.1-0.5%),Foeniculin(0.1-3%),chavicol
methyl ether (isomer anethol), p-
methoxyphenylacetone,Safrole,0.5-5%estragol

108. •Use:
•oil(seed-pericarp)givesodor
•asstartingmaterialtosynthesizeTamiflu(roche)(from
shikimicacid)
•flavoringagent
•carminative
•anetholproduction

110. 22. Jatamansi
•Syn:IndianValerian.ValerianJatamansi,Tagara
•Source:driedrhizomes,stolonsandrootsof
Valerianawallichi(Indian)
•Valerianaofficinalis(European)-Valerianol
•Family:Valerianaceae
•Distribution:India(Himalayas,Kashmir,Garhwal),
AfghanistanandPakistan
•Constituents:palebrowntoambercoloredoilabout
1%,Alkaloidchatanene&valerine,borneolformate,
borneolacetate,camphene,borneol,isovalerianate,
sesqui-terpene,
•2%Valepotriates(valtrate-therapeuticaction)
•ItismoreinIndianvarietycomparedtoEuropean
variety

111. •Use:antispasmodic,depressantactiononCNS,
•stimulant,carminative,tonic,tincture-extract-infusion,
medicinaltea
•flavoringoftobacco&beer
•Valepotriatestranquillizingproperty
•Valericacid:CH3(CH2)3COOH

113. 22 A. Jatamansi
•Syn:Indianspikenard
•Source:driedrhizomesofNardostachysjatamansi
•Family:Valerianaceae
•GS:Himalaya,Altitude:3000-5000m(PB,Sikkim,
Bhutan)
•Constituents:1-2%volatileoil,resin,sugar,starch,bitter
principle.Isovalericester,jatamansicacid,jatamansone,
nardostachone
•CT:80%alcextshowsbluishwhitefluorescenceunder
UV
•Use:Sedative,anti-spasmodic,diuretic,stomachic,
epilepsy,hysteria,Oil:anti-arrythmic,hairtonic

114. 23. Valerian
•Syn:Englishvalerian,Vandalroot
•Source:driedroots,rhizomesandstolonsofValeriana
officinaliscollectedinautumn,temp.below40degree
•Family:Valerianaceae
•Distribution:Netherland,Belgium,France,Germnay,
EasternEuropeandJapan.
•Constituents:0.5-1%volatileoil,Borneol,bornyl
isovalerate,bornylacetate,bornylformate,Eugenyl
isovalerate,isoeugenylisovalerate,alcohols,eugenol,
terpeneandsesquiterpene(valerenal),Valepotriates
0.5%
•Use:insomnia,hysteria,BP,convulsion,sedative,anti-
tumour,nervinetonic,antispasmodic,promote
menstruationwhentakenhot

116. 24. Vetiver
•Syn:Khusoil
•Source:oilobtainedbysteamdistillationfromroots
•ofVetiveriazizaniodes
•Family:Graminae
•Distribution:India(PB,RJ,UP,KL,KA,TN),Myanmar,
Srilanka,Africa,Indonesia,Caribbeanisland,Malaysia,
Philippines,USA
•Constituents:mainlyalcohol45-60%-1Vetivenol,
vetiverol,8-35%ketone-2alpha&3betavetivones
•Indian:khusal,khusitol,khusinol
•Use:Stimulant,refrigerant,flavoringagent,aromatic,
•stomachic,pricklyheatoritches,sharbatpreparation,
soap,perfumery&toiletpreparation

118. Phenyl propanoids category

119. 25. Cinnamon
•Syn:Dalchini,CeylonCinnamon
•Source:driedinnerbarkofcoppicedtreesof
Cinnamomumzeylanicum,C.verum
•Family:Lauraceae
•GS:IndigenoustoSriLanka,MalabarcoastofIndia,
Jamaica,Brazil,Principalproducer-Ceylon

120. Cultivation
•Propagation:seed
•Soil:sandyorsiliconuswithhumus
•Altitude:800-1000m
•Shed,Rain:200-250cm
•Firstnurserybeds,Season:June-July
•Germination:20days
•Allowtogrow-10-12months
•Transplant:Oct-Nov(shedofcoconut)
•Ammoniumsulphateandsupersulphateinfirstyr

121. Cultivation
•Coppicedtoinduceformationofshoots,andtillitattains
browncork
•Harvesting:rainyseason,easytopeeloff,longitudinal
incisionmade
•Longitudinalincisionsaremadeontheshootsand
transversemarkingsarealsogiventoformringsatthe
nodes,whichconnectslongitudinalincisionproducing
strips
•Stripspeeled,coirmattingandallowtofermentfor24
hrs,cork-cortexwillgetremoved
•Drying:stripsbecomesquill(smallonesinsertedto
largerones)
•Quillingandfeathering

122. Morphology
•Color:Outer:Dullyellowishbrown
Inner:darkyellowishbrown
•Odor:Fragrant
•Shape:compoundquill
•Taste:warmsensation
•Fracture:splintery
•Outersurfaceofbarkismarkedbywavy
longitudinalstriationswithsmallholesofscarsleft
bythebranches.Theinnersurfacesalsoshows
thelongitudinalstriations.
•Barkisfreeofcorkandcortex.

123. •Microscopy:
•Cork,Cortex-ABSENT
•SclerenchymatousPericycleFiber
•Phloem
•Phloemfibers
•Biseriatemedullaryrays
•Secretorycavity:volatileoilandmucilage
•Starchgrain:corticalparenchymaandmedullaryrays
•Calciumoxalate:parenchymatouscells
•ChemicalTest:OnaddidtionofFeCl3,oilproducespale
greencolour.Cinnamicaldehyde-brown,Eugenol:blue,
resultinginPaleGreen
•Cassiaoilproducesbrowncolorbecauseitonlycontains
cinnamicaldehyde

125. •Constituents:
•0.5-1%volatileoil,1.2%tannin(phlobatannins)
•Mucilage,Caloxalate,Starch
•Sweetsubstancemannitol
•Volatileoil:60-70%cinnamicaldehye,phellandrene,
pinene,5-10%eugenol,caryophyllene,

126. Use & Substitutes -Adulterants
•Uses:
•Carminative,Stomachic,Mildastringent,Aromatic,
Antiseptic,Spice-condiment
•Preparationofcandy,dentifriceandperfumes
•Substitutes:
•1.Junglecinnamon
•2.Cinnamonchips
•3.SaigonCinnamon
•4.JavaCinnamon

127. 26. Cassia cinnamon
•Syn:Chinesecinnamon,Cassiacinnamon
•Source:driedstembarkofCinnamonumcassia
•Family:Lauraceae
•GS:IndigenoustoChina,cultivatedinSrilanka,
Myanmar
•Constituents:1-2%volatileoil:cassiaoil,mucilage,
starch,calciumoxalateandtannins.Cinnamicaldehyde
85%,smallamountofeugenol,cinnamylacetate
•CassiabarkcontainscoumarinnotfoundinCinnamon
•Use:carminative,stimulant,flavouringagent,condiment

129. 27. Clove
•Syn:Caryophyllum,Lavang
•Source:driedflowerbudsofSyzygium
aromaticum(Eugeniacaryophyllus),NLT7%
Eugenol
•Family:Myrtaceae
•GS:IndigenoustoMoluccaorCloveIslands,
cultivatedinZanzibar,Pemba,Madagascar,
CaribbeanislandSrilanka,India
•India:Nilgiri,TenkasiHills,KanyakumariDist(TN),
Kottayam,Quilon(KL)

130. Cultivation
•Soil:deeprichloamywithhighhumus,sandyloamwith
laterite
•Waterloggingtobeavoided
•Climate:warmandhumid,Growswell–vicinityofsea
•Altitude:sealevelto900m
•Rainfall-150-200cm
•Propagation:seedling
•SowingPeriod:AugusttoOctober
•Firstinnurserybeds
•Germinationperiod:5weeks

131. Cultivation
•Transplant:after6monthstopotsandallowedtogrow
forayear
•Transfer:Fieldinshade
•CanbegrownalongwithArecanut,coconut,nutmeg
•Fertilizers:Ammoniumsulphate,superphosphateand
potash(2doses,first:May/June&second:October)
•Yield:normalproduction:3kgdrug

132. Collection and Preparation
•Collection:After7-8years
•Picking:Handpickingorbeatingwithbamboos
•Theoperationcommenceswhentheclovesstart
changingtheircolourfromgreentoslightlypink
•Whenistreeistallandclovesarebeyondreach,
platformladdersareusedforcollection.
•Drying:Sundryingpreferred
•Colourchange:afterdryingitbecomescrimsonto
brownishblackincolour
•C

133. Morphology
•Colour:crimsontodarkbrown
•Odour:Aromatic
•Taste:Pungentandaromatic,followedbynumbness
•Shape:Hypanthiumissurroundedby4thickacute
divergentsepelssurroundedbydomeshapedcorolla.

134. Microscopy
•Heavycuticularizedepidermis
•Anomocyticstomatainepidermis
•Numerousoilcells(shizolysigenous)
•Phloemfibers
•Calciumoxalates(clustercrystals&
prisms)
•Lignifiedsclereids
•*doesnotcontainstarchgrains,
Starch(Fruit–“mothercloves”)

137. •Constituents:
•14-21%Volatileoils
•10-13%tannin(gallotannicacid),resin,chromone,
eugenil
•Volatileoil:70-90%Eugenol,Eugenolacetate,
Caryophyllene
•Smallquantityofester,ketoneandalcohol
•ChemicalTest:WhenTSofcloveistreatedwithstrong
KOH,needleshapedcrystalsofpotassiumeugenate
areobserved
•Use:
•Dentalanalgesic,Carminative,Stimulant,Flavouring
agent,Aromatic,Antiseptic,preparationofCigarettes,
Perfumery,ManufacturingofVanillin

138. Adulterants:
1.Mothercloves:presenceofstarchgrains(old)
2.Blowncloves:lessvolatileoil
3.Clovestalks:stonecellsaredetected,lessoil
4.Exhaustedclove:floatonwater,lessoil

140. 28. Nutmeg
•Syn:Nuxmoschata,Myristica,Jaiphal
•Source:driedkernelsofseedsof
•Myristicafragrans
•Family:Myristicaceae
•Distribution:Moluccaislands(native),cultivatedin
•Indonesia,Malaysia,Sumatra,Java,Penang,Ceylon,
WestIndies,Ceylon,India(KL,TN)
•75%demandfromIndonesia,15%Grenada
•Constituents:5-15%VolatileOil,30-40%fat,
Phytosterin,Starch,Amylodextrin,Coloringmatter,
Saponin

142. •Constituents:5-16%volatileoil,30%fat,protein,starch
•Volatileoil:4-8%myristicin,elimicinandsaffrole
•Fattyacid:60%oilofmyristic,oleic,palmitic,lauricacid
•Myristicinisvpoisnousandthenarcoticeffectofthe
drugissaidtobeduetomyristicin.Nutmegbutter
containstrimyristin.
•Use:Nutmegbutter-Bandasoap-Soapmanufacturing
•Fatandvolatileoil-Rheumatismtreatment
•Infantilediarrhoea,flavouringagent