Western-Philosophy (World History)...ppt

World History

2. Socrates Predecessors
•Human beings have lived on this planet for hundreds of thousands of years. We,
of course, doesn’t know all the experiences and thoughts of our ancestors or the
earliest people.
•For us to know how this world was formed, our ancestors thought about it,
whether they were unique, compare to animals, or whether there was a world
beyond the earthly surrounding them.
•When we look at the earliest writings, we find various regions had their own
speculative tradition.
•The story of Western philosophy, begins in a series of islands and colonies during
the 6
th
century .

3. •In our lives., we have so many questions to ask for, just what others thinkers
from the past centuries, they had to asked, what are things really like? and
how can we explain the process of change in things?. This are some of the
question that some thinkers wanted to give solutions about on these different
puzzles were shortly thereafter dubbed, what we call “PHILOSOPHY”.
•Philosophy was defined as the love of wisdom, wherein it gives these
speculations on what is the recognition that things are not exactly what they
seem to be..
•These facts raised the questions of how things and people came into existence,
at different times and pass out of existence only to be followed by other things
and persons.
•Greek philosophy was the seaport town of Miletus and was located across the
Aegean sea from Athens, on the western shores of Ionian Asian minor.

4. Three milesian philosophers
Thales
Anaximander
Anaximenes
•These three great philosophers though in terms of traditional
mythology with human-like gods, philosophy among the milesians began
as an act independent thought.
•What important thing to keep in mind, though, is that Greek
philosophy from the start was an intellectual activity.
•It was not a matter only of seeing or believing but of “thinking”

5. What is permanent in existence?
•Thales of Miletus was a contemporary of Greek king Croesus and
statesman soloh.
•He apparently solved the difficult logistical problem of enabling the
Lydian's king army to cross the wide river Halys river.
•He was the one who worked out to measure the height of the pyramid,
using his solution to use the simple procedure of measuring a pyramid’s
shadow.
•He urged sailors to use the constellation Little bear as the surest guide
for determining the direction of the north.
•Thales became famous not for his general wisdom or his practical
shrewdness, but because he opened up a new area of thought for which
he has rightly earned the title to be the “first philosopher of western
civilization.”

6. •He inquired concerns about the nature of things, wherein he
formulated to asked “What is everything made of, or what kind
of stuff goes into the composition of things?
•He was trying to account for the fact that there are many
different kinds of things, such as earth, clouds, and oceans.
•He’s contribution to thought, was despite of the differences
between various things, there is still a basic similarities
between them all.
•“The many "are related to each other by “the one”.
•He assumed that some single elements, some stuff, a stuff
which contained its own principle of action or change lay at the
foundation of all physical reality.
•To him this “one” or the stuff he mentioned was the “WATER”

7. •All thought there is no record on how Thales came into
conclusion that water is the cause of all things Aristotle said
that Thales may derived it from observation of simple events,
or seeing that the nutrient of all things is moist and that heat
is generated from the moist and kept alive by it.
•But Thales analysis of the composition of things is far less
important than the fact that he raised the question concerning
the nature of the world.
•Admittedly, Thales also said that "all things are full of God”.
•So, we tried to explain the power in things, such as magnetic
powers in stones, he shifted the discussion from a mythygical
base to one of scientific inquiry.

8. Anaximander
•He was a pupil of Thales of Miletus
•On what had Thales done, Anaximander agreed on it that there is some single
basic stuff out of which everything come from.
•He was the one who said that those basic stuff is either a water nor any other
specific element.
•The primary substance out of which all these specific things comes he argued on
a boundless realm, and on the opposite sides there is what he also calls
intermediate boundless.
•His explanation about the intermediate boundless is that, it originates and
destructible primary substance of things, yet he believes, it also has eternal
motion.he root of all things
• In contrast on this motion, the various specific elements come into being as the
separated off from the original substance.
•The eternal motion that was mentioned is which the heavens came to be.
•First is the warm and cold were separated off, and these two came the so called
moist: and from these the earth and air was formed.

9. •Anaximander said that the origin of life, come from a sea and that, living
things came out of the sea to dry land
•Anaximander also thought that there were many worlds n many systems
of universe existing all at the same time.
•All of them die out and there is a constant alternation between their
creations and destructions.
NOTE:
“From what source things arise, to that
they return of necessity when they are
destroyed: for they suffer punishment and
make reparation to one another for their
injustice according to the order of time”

10. Anaximenes
•He was the third and last melesians philosophers, and was a young associate of
Anaximander.
•He agreed o what had Anaximander had answer to a question concerning about
the composition of natural things, but he was not satisfied with what had
Anaximander theorized with it.
•Boundless as being a source of all things was simply too vague and intangible,
•That is why anaximenes chose Anaximander notion over Thales notion that water
is the cause of all things.
•This boundless could explain the “ infinite background to the wide variety of
finite and specific meaning for anaximenes and he therefore chose to focus upon a
definite substance the way Thales did.
•As he mediate the two views of his predecessors, he designated “AIR” as the
primary substance from which all things come.
•He chose air because air is definite substance and we can readily see it at at the
root of all things.
•For example. Human beings cannot survive In this world unless if he breath, so
even air is invisible, it holds us together and air encompasses the whole world.
•To explain how air is the origin of all things, anaximenes argued that things are
what they are by virtue of how point he introduced the important new idea that
differences in quality caused by differences in quantity.

11. •Although, these milesian philosopher proceeded with scientific concerns
and temperaments they did not form their hypothesis the way of what
scientist do, instead the performed any experiments to test their theories
•But we must remember that the critical questions concerning to nature and
limits oh human knowledge had not yet been raised.
•What ever they had theorized certainly raises this questions into a problem.
•Whatever maybe the usefulness of their specific ideas about WATER, AIR
AND BOUNDLESS, as the primary or source of all things, the real significance
of milesians is, they are the first time to raised this questions about the
ultimate nature of things and made the first halting but direct inquiry into
what nature really consists of.

12. The mathematical basis of all
things
•Pythagoreans said that things consists of NUMBERS.
•Although this was a quite strange, the difficulty of this theory is greatly
overcome when we consider why pythagaoras became interested in numbers
and what his conception of numbers was.
•His originality consists partly in his conviction that the study of
mathematics is the best purifier of the soul.
•He was also the founder of religious sect and a school of mathematics.
•Pythagoreans were also clearly concerned with the mystical problems of
purification and immortality.
•He has also a special practice of counting and writing numbers and thus may
have facilitated their view that all things are numbers .

13. Heraclius
•His theory in philosophy are:
•Flux and Fire
•Reason as the universal law
•The conflicts of opposite
 On his theory about the flux and fire, he assumed that there must
be something which changes and he argued that this something is fire. He
chose fire as the element in things was that fire behaves in such a way as to
suggest how the process of change operates. When therefore, Heraclitus
fastened about fire as the basic reality, he do not only identified that
something which changes, but though he had discovered the principle of
change it self.
 On his example, if gold is exchanged for wares, both then gold an
the wares still continue to exist, although they are now in different hands.
This example given by him proves that all things continue to exits although
they are being exchange their form from time to time.

14.  Another theory that he contribute is about the Reason of
universal law..
 On this theory of reason cane from Heraclitus’ religious
conviction that the most real of all is the soul. And the souls’ most
distinctive and important attribute is wisdom or thought. For him there is
only one basic reality namely fire .
 These rational principles constitute the essence of law- the
universal law immanent an all things . This account of our rational would
only mean that the thoughts of a man is the thoughts of God since there is a
unity between the one and the many and between God and human beings.

15.  Lastly, his theory about the conflict of opposites . Although human
beings can know the eternal wisdom that directs all things, we do not pay
attention to this wisdom, instead we therefore proves to be uncomprehending
of he reasons for the way things happen to them.
 The conflict that we see in this world is not a calamity, but simply the
permanent condition of all things. According to Heraclitus, if we could
visualize the whole process of change we would see that war is common and
justice is strife and that all things happens by stifle and necessity.
 Therefore. This reasons says that people do not know how hat is at
variance agrees with itself. Thus, in the one, the way up and the way down is
the same, such as good and ill , quick and death, young and old and wake to
sleep.

16. Parmenides
The logic of Parmenides theory begins with the simple statement
that something is, or something is not. For example, cows exist but unicorns
do not exist. Though Parmenides realizes that we can only assert the first part
above statement that something is. The reason is that, we can only
conceptualize and speak about things that exist but are in able to do this
things that do not exist. According to Parmenides we must reject any
contention that implies that something is not. First he argues that nothing
ever changes, there we have seen that everything is in constant change.

We first say that the tree for example is not, then it is,
then once again it is not. Logically speaking, we are forced to
reject this kind of thoughts of process of change. Thus,
nothing ever change.

17. Zeno
Zeno’s main strategy was to show that the so-called commonsense view of
the world led to conclusions even there's ridiculous than Parmenides’ view.
He concluded that our senses have deceived us. For either, there is a
sound when the single seed falls or there is not a sound when the many seeds fall.
So to get at the truth of things it is more reliable to go by way of thought than by
way of sensation.
Zeno’s four paradoxes are:
•The racecourse- according to this paradox of motion, a runner crosses a series of
units of distance from the beginning to the end of the racecourse..
•Achilles and the tortoise- this paradox is similar to the racecourse Illustrations.
This only explain that no matter what Achilles started ahead .of the tortoise he
can never reached it.
•The arrow- This paradox, argued the reality of space and therefore its
divisibility, would have to say that he moving arrow occupy a particular position
in space.
•The relativity of motion- This paradox, explain the the opposite directions t the
same time.

18. Empedocles
The concepts of his theory are:
•Hate
•Love
Empedocles assumed that there are in nature two forces, which he called
“love and hate”.
These are the forces of love cause elements to attract to each other
and built up into some particular form or person. The force of hate causes the
decomposition of things. The four elements then mix together or separate from
each other depending on hoe much love or hate are present. In fact,
Empedocles believe that there are cycles within nature that manifest Love and
Strife in differing degrees at different times.

19. Anaxagoras
“The concept of his theory is that all things are governed by man”
According to Anaxagoras. The nature of reality is best understood as
consisting of Mind and Matter. Before mid has influence the shape and behavior
of matter, matter exists as a mixture of various kinds of material substances, all
uncreated and imperishable.
According also to Anaxagoras, separation is the process by which this
matter formed into various things, and such separation occurs through the
power of mind. Specifically, mind produced a rotary motion, causing a vortex
which spread out so as to encompasses more and more of the original mass of
matter. This forces a separation of various substances. This rotary motion
originally caused a separation of matter into two major divisions, one mass that
contained the warm, light, rare, and dry, and a second mass that contained the
cold, dark, and moist.
This process of separation, is continuous and there is a constant
progress in the process of separation.

20. The sophists and Socrates The sophists and Socrates
• The first Greek philosophers focused in nature: the Sophists and Socrates
shifted the concerns of philosophy to the study of human. They instead asked
questions that more directly related to moral behavior. They proposed inconsistent
interpretations of nature and here appeared to be no way of reconciling them.
• For example, Heraclitus said that the nature consists of a plurality of
substance and that everything is in a process of constant change. To Parmenides,
took the opposite view arguing that reality is a single, static substance- the one- and
that motion and change are illusions cast on our senses by the appearances of things.
• As it was the controversy over the ultimate principle of things had
generated an attitude of skepticism about the ability of human reason to discover
the truth about nature.
• This question was further aggravated by cultural differences between
various races and societies . Consequently, the question about truth became deeply
entwined with the problem of goodness.

21. The sophistsThe sophists
The three most outstanding Sophist who emerged in Athens during the fifth
century were:
•Pythagoras
•Gorgias
•Thrasymachus
They were part of a group hat came to Athens wither as traveling teachers or,
in the case of Hippias of Elis, as ambassadors.
Pythagoras
-was the oldest and, in many ways the most influential. He is best known of his
statement that, “ man is the measure of all things, of the things that are, that
they are, and of things that are not, that they are not. Therefore, to say that our
knowledge is measured by what we perceived, if something within us makes us
perceive things differently, there is then no standard for testing whether one
person’s perception is right and another person’s perception is wrong.

22. Gorgias
-He took as a radical view regarding truth that he eventually gave up
philosophy and turned instead to the practice and teaching of rhetoric. He
propounded the extra ordinary notions for example he argued that we
communicate with words are only symbols or signs and no symbols can ever
be the same as the thing it symbolizes.
-Upon abandoning philosophy, gorgias turned to rhetoric and tried to perfect
it as the art of persuasion.
Thrasymachus
-He portrayed as the sophists who asserted the injustice is to be preferred to
the life of justice. Thrasymachus considered the unjust person as superior in
character and intelligence. Indeed he said, that injustice pays not only at the
meager level of the pick-pocket but especially for those who carry injustice
to perfection and make themselves masters of whole cities and nations.

23. Socrates
He was attempting to discover the foundation of the good life. As he pursued his mission
he devised a method for arriving at truth; he linked knowing and doing, so that to know
the good is to do the good. That was the golden rule mentioned by Socrates This golden
rule only explain that. What you do not want others do unto you don’t do to other.
.Socrates Life
-Socrates wrote nothing. Most of what we know about him has been preserved by three
of his famous younger contemporaries , and they are, Aristophanes, Xephanon, and most
importantly Plato. From Aristophanes, he depicts Socrates as a strutting waterfowl,
poking fun at his habit of rolling his eyes and referring impishly to his pupil and
thinking shop. To Xephanon, he portrait of a loyal soldier who had a passion for
discussing the requirements of morality and who inevitably attracted younger people
who sought his advice.

24. Socrates as a Philosopher
• Our most extensive sources of his thought are the dialogues of Plato, in which he is
the leading character. Plato’s dialogues cannot identify whether his dialogues were
reporting of what had Socrates actually thought, or he was just expressing his own ideas
using the figure of Socrates.
• On this view, Plato, would get credit only for the literary form he devised for
preserving and elaborating on, and lending precision and color to Socrates thought. On the
other hand, Aristotle distinguished between the philosophical contributions made by
Socrates and Plato. Aristotle gave credit to Socrates, for inductive arguments and universal
definitions and to Plato he ascribed the development of the famous theory of forms. The
notions that the universal archetypes exist independently of the particular things that
embody them.
• For Socrates the key point in this conception of the soul concerns our conscious
awareness of what some words means. To know that something contradict to others- for
example, that justice cannot mean harming others- is a typical example of what the soul can
discover simply by using its ability to know.
•

25. Socrates theory of knowledge: Intellectual
Midwifery
• On his method which he called” dialectic”, is a deceptively simple
technique. It always begins a discussion of the most obvious aspects of any problem.
Through this process of dialogue, in which all parties to the conversion are forced
to clarify their ideas, final outcome of the conversation is a clear statement of what
is meant. Although the technique appeared simple, it was not long before anyone
upon whom Socrates employed it could feel its tense rigor, as well as the
discomfort of Socrates irony.
• We find a good example of Socrates method in Plato’s dialogue. Like what
he mentioned Euthyphro. Young euthyphro arrives on the scene and explains that
he plans to bring charges of impiety against his own father.
• Euthyphro answers Socrates by defining piety as prosecuting the wrong
doer, and impiety as not prosecuting him.

26. Socrates moral thought Socrates moral thought
For Socrates knowledge and virtue were the same thing. If
virtue has to do with making the souls as good as possible, it is
first necessary to know what makes the soul good. Therefore,
goodness and knowledge are closely related. But Socrates said
more about morality than simply this. He in fact identified
goodness and knowledge saying that to know the good is to
do good, that knowledge edge is virtue. By identifying
knowledge and virtue, Socrates meant also to say that vice, or
evil, is the absence of knowledge. Just as knowlegde is virtue,
so, too, vice is ignorance.

27. • To equate virtue and knowledge Socrates had in mind a particular
conception of virtue. For him, virtue means, fulfilling one’s function. .This inner
well-being this, making the soul as goo as possible can be achieved only by certain
appropriate types of behavior.
• Because we have a desire for happiness which acts or what behavior will
produce happiness? Socrates knew that some forms of behavior appear to produce
happiness but in reality do not.
• We may feel to be happy but there are still time that we feel said. We cannot
control our feelings, but it just give us our emotional ability on what to feel.

28. Socrates trial Socrates trial
and death and death
•Convinced that the care of human soul should be our greatest concern,
Socrates spent most of his time, examining his own life, a well as he lives and
thoughts of the other Athens.
•His defense as recorded by Plato’s apology is a brilliant proof of his intellectual
powers. Is I also a powerful exposure of his accusers motives and the
inadequacy of the grounds for their charges.
•His defense is a model of forceful argument, resting wholly on a recitation of
facts and on the requirements of rational discourse.
• To the end, his friends tried to make possible his escape, but Socrates would
have none on it.
•He was already growing cold and spoke for the last time. Crito, he said, I owe a
cock to Asclepius: do not forget to pay it. Such was the end… of our friend a
man, I think, who was of all the men of his time, the best, the wisest, and the
most just.

29. PlatoPlato
The earliest Greek philosopher, the Milesians were
concerned chiefly with the constitution of physical
nature.
Plato's great influence stems from the manner in which he
brought all these diverse philosophical concerns into a
unified system of thought.

30. Plato’s lifePlato’s life
• Plato was born in Athens in428/27 BCE, one year after death
of Pericles and when Socrates was bought 42 years old.
• Plato’s family was one if the distinguish in Athens, his early
training included the rich ingredients of that culture in the arts,
politics, and philosophy.
• Plato learned much about public life and developed at an
early age a sense of responsibility for public political service.
• Plato lectured at the academy without having a notes.
• Because his lectures were never written down, they were
never published, although notes by his students were circulated.
• An idealistic and rationalistic philosopher.

31. If the world is not perfect, it is not because of God but because the
raw materials were not perfect.
Separates the ever – changing phenomenal world from the true
and eternal ideal reality. Idea or ideal and phenomena.
Phenomena are illusions which decay and die.
 

Ideals are unchanging, perfect.
Phenomenal world strives to become ideal, perfect, and complete.
There’s the body which is material, mortal and ‘moved’ then, the
soul which is ideal, immortal and ‘unmoved’.

32. Plato’s three theories of SoulPlato’s three theories of Soul
 
3 souls: (levels of pleasure)
 
 appetite – mortal and comes from the gut.
 spirit/ courage – mortal and lives in the heart.
reason – immortal and resides in the brain.

33. Aristotle

34. Aristotle
•Born in 384 BCE in the small town of Stagira on the northeast
coast of Thrace
•Went on Athens to enroll in Plato’s Academy, where he spent the
next twenty years as a pupil and a member.
•He wrote many dialogues in a Platonic style, which his
contemporaries praised for the “ goldenstream” of their
eloquence
•Aristotle was born in Stageira, a Greek colony in Macedonia, in
384 BC. Generations of Aristotle's family including his father,
Nichomachus, had served as physicians to the Kings of
Macedonia.

35. •His parents died when he was about ten years old and he
was taken in by foster parents: Proxenos and his wife.
•He moved to Athens at the age of seventeen, and he
remained there for some twenty years.
•This is where he got his first taste of the sciences and
actively became a teacher.
•He studied under Plato , whose influences are most apparent
in Aristotle's theoretical and practical philosophies.
•He greatly admired Plato all the way to his death, despite
the fact that he later opposed some of his most important
points.
•Aristotle was married twice, first to the foster daughter of
his noble friend Hermeias, named Pythias.

36. •After her death he married Herpyllis, who came from his
birthplace, Stageira.
•There was some controversy surrounding this marriage because
Herpyllis did not have as high a social position as his first wife,
Pythias.
•Herpyllis gave birth to his son Nichomachus and was entrusted
with the care of his daughter from his first marriage.
•After the death of Alexander the Great, Athens was taken over
by people who didn't like Alexander.
•They suspected Aristotle of sympathizing with Alexander, and
he was exiled from Athens.
•Aristotle died in 322 BC at the age of sixty-two in Chalkis on the
island of Euboea, which had granted him refuge when he was
exiled from Athens.

37. Aristotle's Logic
•Aristotle's logic, especially his theory of the syllogism,
has had an unparalleled influence on the history of
Western thought.
•It did not always hold this position: in the Hellenistic
period, Stoic logic, and in particular the work of
Chrysippus, took pride of place.
•However, in later antiquity, following the work of
Aristotelian Commentators, Aristotle's logic became
dominant, and Aristotelian logic was what was
transmitted to the Arabic and the Latin medieval
traditions, while the works of Chrysippus have not
survived.

38. Aristotle's Logical Works: The Organon
The ancient commentators grouped together
several of Aristotle's treatises under the title
Organon ("Instrument") and regarded them as
comprising his logical works:

1.Categories
2.On Interpretation
3.Prior Analytics
4.Posterior Analytics
5.Topics
6.On Sophistical Refutations

39. •In fact, the title Organon reflects a much later controversy
about whether logic is a part of philosophy (as the Stoics
maintained) or merely a tool used by philosophy (as the
later Peripatetics thought); calling the logical works "The
Instrument" is a way of taking sides on this point.
•Aristotle himself never uses this term, nor does he give
much indication that these particular treatises form some
kind of group, though there are frequent cross-references
between the Topics and the Analytics.
•On the other hand, Aristotle treats the Prior and Posterior
Analytics as one work, and On Sophistical Refutations is a
final section, or an appendix, to the Topics).
•To these works should be added the Rhetoric, which
explicitly declares its reliance on the Topics.

40. The Subject of Logic:
"Syllogisms"
•All Aristotle's logic revolves around
one notion: the deduction
(sullogismos). A thorough
explanation of what a deduction is,
and what they are composed of, will
necessarily lead us through the
whole of his theory.

41. Induction and Deduction
•Deductions are one of two species of
argument recognized by Aristotle.
•The other species is induction.
•He has far less to say about this than
deduction, doing little more than
characterize it as "argument from the
particular to the universal".

42. Some of the differences may have
important consequences:
•1.Aristotle explicitly says that what
results of necessity must be different
from what is supposed.
•This would rule out arguments in which
the conclusion is identical to one of the
premises.
•Modern notions of validity regard such
arguments as valid, though trivially so.

43. •2.The plural "certain things having been
supposed" was taken by some ancient
commentators to rule out arguments with
only one premise.
•3. The force of the qualification "because of
their being so" has sometimes been seen as
ruling out arguments in which the
conclusion is not ‘relevant’ to the premises,
• e.g., arguments in which the premises are
inconsistent, arguments with conclusions
that would follow from any premises
whatsoever, or arguments with superfluous
premises.

44. Aristotle's Metaphysics
•The first major work in the history of
philosophy to bear the title “Metaphysics” was
the treatise by Aristotle that we have come to
know by that name.
•But Aristotle himself did not use that title or
even describe his field of study as ‘metaphysics’;
the name was evidently coined by the first
century C.E. editor who assembled the treatise
we know as Aristotle's Metaphysics out of
various smaller selections of Aristotle's works.

45. What is Substance?
•In the seventeen chapters that make up Book of the
Ζ
Metaphysics, Aristotle takes up the promised study of substance.
•He begins by reiterating and refining some of what he said in
that ‘being’ is said in many ways, and that the primary sense of
‘being’ is the sense in which substances are beings.
•he explicitly links the secondary senses of ‘being’ to the non-
substance categories.
•The primacy of substance leads Aristotle to say that the age-old
question ‘What is being?’ “is just the question ‘What is
substance?’”
•One might have thought that this question had already been
answered in the Categories.

46. Motion
•Because motion or change (kinêsis) is mentioned in the definition of nature,
any discussion of nature will need to rely upon the explanation of motion.
• One might—erroneously—think that this is an easy task, because Aristotle's
categories (as listed in the Categories and also elsewhere) do contain two
related types of entities, action and passion.
•Aristotle's discussion of motion in the Physics, however, starts out in a
somewhat different manner.
•When he submits that there is no motion besides the categories , he does not
assign motions to the categories of action and passion.
•After mentioning that the entities in the categories come in oppositions,
Aristotle submits a few lines later that there are as many kinds of motion
and change as there are kinds of being.

47. Classical Philosophy After Aristotle
Epicurus

48. EPICURUS
•Son of Neocles and Chaerestrate, was an Athenian from the Son of Neocles and Chaerestrate, was an Athenian from the
district of Gargettus district, of the Philaidae clan, as district of Gargettus district, of the Philaidae clan, as
Metrodorus reports in his book Metrodorus reports in his book On Noble BirthOn Noble Birth.
 
.
 
•Other sources, including Heraclides in his Other sources, including Heraclides in his EpitomeEpitome of Sotion, of Sotion,
report that he grew up in Samos, after the Athenians divided report that he grew up in Samos, after the Athenians divided
up the land for colonization up the land for colonization
•He came to Athens at age eighteen, when Xenocrates He came to Athens at age eighteen, when Xenocrates
lectured at the Academy, and Aristotle in Chalcis.
 
lectured at the Academy, and Aristotle in Chalcis.
 
• But when Alexander of Macedon died, and the Athenians at But when Alexander of Macedon died, and the Athenians at
Samos were evicted by Perdiccas, Epicurus left Athens to Samos were evicted by Perdiccas, Epicurus left Athens to
join his father in Colophon.
 
join his father in Colophon.
 

49. Physics
•In physics Epicurus founded upon Democritus, and his
chief object was to abolish the dualism between mind and
matter which is so essential a point in the systems of Plato
and Aristotle.
•All that exists, says Epicurus, is corporeal; the intangible
is non-existent, or empty space.
•If a thing exists it must be felt, and to be felt it must
exert resistance.
•But not all things are intangible which our senses are not
subtle enough to detect.

50. •The fundamental postulates of Epicureanism are
atoms and the void.
•Space is infinite, and there is an illimitable multitude
of indestructible, indivisible and absolutely compact
atoms in perpetual motion in this illimitable space.
•These atoms, differing only in size, figure and weight,
are perpetually moving with equal velocities, but at a
rate far surpassing our conceptions
•as they move, they are for ever giving rise to new
worlds; and these worlds are perpetually tending
towards dissolution, and towards a fresh series of
creations.
• This universe of ours is only one section out of the
innumerable worlds in infinite space

51. The Gods
•This aspect of the Epicurean physics becomes clearer This aspect of the Epicurean physics becomes clearer
when we look at his mode of rendering particular when we look at his mode of rendering particular
phenomena intelligible. phenomena intelligible.
•His purpose is to eliminate the common idea of divine His purpose is to eliminate the common idea of divine
interference. interference.
•That there are gods Epicurus never dreams of denying. That there are gods Epicurus never dreams of denying.
•But these gods have not on their shoulders the burden of But these gods have not on their shoulders the burden of
upholding and governing the world.upholding and governing the world.
• They are themselves the products of the order of nature They are themselves the products of the order of nature
a higher species than humanity, but not the rulers of man, a higher species than humanity, but not the rulers of man,
neither the makers nor the upholders of the worldneither the makers nor the upholders of the world

52. AugustineAugustine

53. Augustine's LifeAugustine's Life
•Aurelius Augustinus was born on November 13, 354, in the Aurelius Augustinus was born on November 13, 354, in the
Numidian town of Thagaste in Roman North Africa (located Numidian town of Thagaste in Roman North Africa (located
in the present-day Algeria). in the present-day Algeria).
•His parents were Romans citizens of modest means; his His parents were Romans citizens of modest means; his
father, Patricius, was a pagan, and his mother, Monica, a father, Patricius, was a pagan, and his mother, Monica, a
Christian. Christian.
•The first nine, of thirteen, books of his Confessions are The first nine, of thirteen, books of his Confessions are
autobiographical, dramatically recounting the first third of autobiographical, dramatically recounting the first third of
a century of his life to his second birth by baptism, in 387. a century of his life to his second birth by baptism, in 387.
•The Confessions are mostly a narrative, addressed to God, of The Confessions are mostly a narrative, addressed to God, of
his painful, troubled search for spiritual fulfillment. his painful, troubled search for spiritual fulfillment.

54. Faith and Reasons
•From the apologetics of the patristic period through the medieval period,
philosophers tried to understand the proper mix of the two faculties of
reason and faith in a person’s life.
• Which of the two should someone use to understand the world? According
to Augustine, philosophy must include both.
•Augustine believed that reason can never be religiously neutral.
• Reason is not one independent approach to the truth while faith is another.
•Reason is a function of the whole person and is affected by the orientation
of your heart, your passion, and your faith.
•As he puts it, “Faith seeks, understanding finds; whence the prophet says,
‘Unless ye believe, ye shall not understand.’”

55. •The faith and reason issue also applies to moral knowledge. The faith and reason issue also applies to moral knowledge.
•Contrary to the Socratic dictum that “Virtue is Contrary to the Socratic dictum that “Virtue is
knowledge,” and that knowing leads you to pursue the knowledge,” and that knowing leads you to pursue the
truth, Augustine maintained, as a result of his own moral truth, Augustine maintained, as a result of his own moral
struggles, that knowledge does not produce goodness.”struggles, that knowledge does not produce goodness.”
• According to Augustine, “Faith goes before; understanding According to Augustine, “Faith goes before; understanding
follows after.”follows after.”
•Augustine used reason to work out his own doctrines and Augustine used reason to work out his own doctrines and
to agree with or refute the doctrines of others. to agree with or refute the doctrines of others.
•He was also a man of faith. As a philosopher, however, he He was also a man of faith. As a philosopher, however, he
had to inquire and pursue the truth. had to inquire and pursue the truth.
•True philosophy had to join faith and reason, he thought. True philosophy had to join faith and reason, he thought.
•But according to Augustine, faith was primary. But according to Augustine, faith was primary.

56. Ontology and Eudaimonism
•In the In the ConfessionsConfessions, where Augustine gives his most extensive , where Augustine gives his most extensive
discussion of the impact of the books of the Platonists, he discussion of the impact of the books of the Platonists, he
makes clear that he regards his previous thinking as having makes clear that he regards his previous thinking as having
been dominated by a common-sense materialism been dominated by a common-sense materialism
•It was the books of the Platonists that first made it possible for It was the books of the Platonists that first made it possible for
him to conceive the possibility of a non-physical substance, him to conceive the possibility of a non-physical substance,
providing him with a non-Manichean solution to the problem of providing him with a non-Manichean solution to the problem of
the origin of evil. the origin of evil.
•In addition, the books of the Platonists provided him with a In addition, the books of the Platonists provided him with a
metaphysical framework of extraordinary depth and subtlety, metaphysical framework of extraordinary depth and subtlety,
a richly textured tableau upon which the human condition can a richly textured tableau upon which the human condition can
be plotted.be plotted.

57. Philosophical AnthropologyPhilosophical Anthropology
•With respect to Augustine's desire to find a viable alternative to With respect to Augustine's desire to find a viable alternative to
the awkward and intractable moral dualism of the Manicheans, the awkward and intractable moral dualism of the Manicheans,
there can be little question that his embracing of Neoplatonism is there can be little question that his embracing of Neoplatonism is
a positive development. a positive development.
•Not only does it allow him to account for evil without Not only does it allow him to account for evil without
substantializing it, but it also provides him with a unified account substantializing it, but it also provides him with a unified account
of the moral drama that constitutes the human condition. of the moral drama that constitutes the human condition.
•Even so, this metaphysical architectonic is prone to tensions of its Even so, this metaphysical architectonic is prone to tensions of its
own, some of which lend themselves to a kind of moral dualism own, some of which lend themselves to a kind of moral dualism
not altogether unlike that of the Manicheans. not altogether unlike that of the Manicheans.
•For Augustine, the individual human being is a body-soul For Augustine, the individual human being is a body-soul
composite, but in keeping with his Neoplatonism, there is an composite, but in keeping with his Neoplatonism, there is an
asymmetry between soul and body. asymmetry between soul and body.

58. Philosophy in the Early Philosophy in the Early
Middle AgesMiddle Ages
Boethius

59. BoethiusBoethius’ Life ’ Life
•Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius was born in or near
Rome around the year 480 A.D.
•Orphaned young, he was brought up in the household
of one of the richest and most venerable aristocrats of
the time, Symmachus
• He married Symmachus's daughter and pursued a
typical career for a senatorial scion of the time,
alternating between ceremonial public office and
private leisure.

60. •In two ways, however, Boethius was unique. In two ways, however, Boethius was unique.
•He was far and away the best educated Roman of his age: He was far and away the best educated Roman of his age:
indeed, there had been no one like him for a century, and indeed, there had been no one like him for a century, and
there would never be another (the senate, long since there would never be another (the senate, long since
ceremoniously inane, disappeared forever by the end of the ceremoniously inane, disappeared forever by the end of the
sixth century). sixth century).
•He had a command of the Greek language adequate to make He had a command of the Greek language adequate to make
him a student, translator, and commentator of the Platonic him a student, translator, and commentator of the Platonic
philosophies of his age (to which we give the name philosophies of his age (to which we give the name
Neoplatonism, to distinguish their opinions from the Neoplatonism, to distinguish their opinions from the
original doctrines of Plato himself). original doctrines of Plato himself).
•Boethius may in fact have studied in the Greek east, perhaps Boethius may in fact have studied in the Greek east, perhaps
at Athens, perhaps at Alexandria, but we cannot be sure. at Athens, perhaps at Alexandria, but we cannot be sure.
•At any rate, he undertook an ambitious project of At any rate, he undertook an ambitious project of
translating and interpreting all the works of both Plato and translating and interpreting all the works of both Plato and
Aristotle and then -- he opined -- demonstrating the essential Aristotle and then -- he opined -- demonstrating the essential
agreement of the two.agreement of the two.

61. Anselm's Ontological Anselm's Ontological
ArgumentArgument
•Anselm's ontological argument purports to be an a priori
proof of God's existence.
•Anselm starts with premises that do not depend on
experience for their justification and then proceeds by
purely logical means to the conclusion that God exists.
• His aim is to refute the fool who says in his heart that there
is no God.
•Anselm's goal is to show that this combination is unstable.
Anyone who understands what it means to say that God
exists can be led to see that God does exist.

62. •What follows is an attempt to clarify the What follows is an attempt to clarify the
argument as it is presented in Chapter II of the argument as it is presented in Chapter II of the
Proslogium.Proslogium.
•After you have worked through this page, you After you have worked through this page, you
might try to produce a similar gloss on the might try to produce a similar gloss on the
second argument. second argument.
•This will not be easy: the argument is This will not be easy: the argument is
notoriously complicated. notoriously complicated.
•But you might find it a useful exercise But you might find it a useful exercise
nonetheless.nonetheless.

63. Aquinas and His Late Medieval Aquinas and His Late Medieval
SuccessorsSuccessors
• Thomas Aquinas brought together the insights of
Classical Philosophy and Christians Theology which
pertains to the study of nature of God and some religious
truth.
• According to him, Classical philosophy and Christian
Theology are related to each other
• Augustine blends the philosophy and theology by
combining the Christian Faith with the Plato’s
philosophical thoughts.
• On the other hand, the medieval thinkers were not agree
to Aquinas and Augustine.

64. Aquinas’s Life
-He was born in 1225 near Naples
-His father hopes that someday he will enjoy a high
ecclesiatical position which pertains ton the position in the
church.
-He recognized the significance philosophy and science for
grounding Christian faith
-He concluded that Christian thinker must master
philosophical and scientific learning in all its forms
-He used Aristotle’s philosophical thoughts creatively and
systematically
-He died in a monastery at the age of 49

65. Philosophy and Theology
•Aquinas is a theologian and he seems like a
Christian because of his thoughts
•He brought together the idea o f philosophy and
theology
•He describes the boundary between faith and
reason although he bring that together, still
philosophy and theology were not the same as it is
because there are things that the philosophy can
provide but cannot provide by the theology

66. Faith and Reason
-Faith pertains to theology and reason pertains to philosophy
-Aquinas noticed the difference among them although they
both pertains to the truth
-Philosophy can tell us about the existence of God but it
doesn’t pertains to what God gives us or the creatures of
God by means of reflecting, the theology can tell us that
Proofs of God’s existence
Aquinas formulated some proofs of God’s existence
1.The first proof is motion, all of us in this world was able to
move and we re all movers. Each and ever y one of us is the
reason why there is a motion
-If there is a motion, there is also life
-Motion is one of the proof of God’s existence because God is
the reason why we are all able to move

67. According to Aquinas, there are 4 kinds of law:According to Aquinas, there are 4 kinds of law:
1.)Eternal Law- This law refers to the fact that the whole
community of the universe is governed by divine reason.
2.)Natural Law- Consists of broad general concepts, it reflects
on God intentions for people in creation. It represents our
rational knowledge of the good.
3.)Human Law- A law made by the human to make the country
peaceful and it is based on human reason.
4.)Divine Law- A kind of Law that can direct us to that
supernatural end. It is not the product of human reason
unlike the human law. It is gave to us through God’s grace.

68. HUMAN NATURE AND
KNOWLEDGE
Human beings are a unity of body and soul. In
other words, our body is not just a body but it has
soul which gives form in our body.
Our body is the reason why we have senses and
we can use our sense to gain knowledge.
The unity of our body and soul is very important.

69. Philosophy During RenaissancePhilosophy During Renaissance
•Humanism and Italian Renaissance art during the middle Humanism and Italian Renaissance art during the middle
Ages was filled with religious symbolism and they make use Ages was filled with religious symbolism and they make use
of it for teaching biblical stories.of it for teaching biblical stories.
PicoPico
Pico Della MirandolaPico Della Mirandola is the most vivid representative is the most vivid representative
of Renaissance humanismof Renaissance humanism
•His most famous piece is the oration on Human Dignity, a His most famous piece is the oration on Human Dignity, a
brief speech and the philosophical context of this is the classic brief speech and the philosophical context of this is the classic
theory of the great chain of being.theory of the great chain of being.
•He begins his oration b y asking what makes humanity so He begins his oration b y asking what makes humanity so
special and the answer to this is that God created us uniquely special and the answer to this is that God created us uniquely
below the angels and above the animals.below the angels and above the animals.

70. According to him:According to him:
 God in fact filled every conceivable niche God in fact filled every conceivable niche
in the chain of being with some kind of in the chain of being with some kind of
creaturecreature
 God saw that every slot was already God saw that every slot was already
occupied by somethingoccupied by something
 God’s solution was to allow people to God’s solution was to allow people to
select their own spot within the great select their own spot within the great
chain.chain.

71. MachiavelliMachiavelli
•He was a product of Italian Renaissance He was a product of Italian Renaissance
•Savonarola was his great preacherSavonarola was his great preacher
•Savonarola taught Machiavelli an early lesson about the Savonarola taught Machiavelli an early lesson about the
relative power of good and evil forces in society.relative power of good and evil forces in society.
•Machiavelli composed two books: (1) The Discourses and (2) Machiavelli composed two books: (1) The Discourses and (2)
the Prince in 1513 but it was published after his deaththe Prince in 1513 but it was published after his death
•The one that he write which is the Discourses expressed The one that he write which is the Discourses expressed
enthusiasm or the great interest for self government and enthusiasm or the great interest for self government and
liberty emphasisliberty emphasis
•While the Prince is about n the need for an absolute monarchWhile the Prince is about n the need for an absolute monarch
•-He thought that all people are evil because he found -He thought that all people are evil because he found
corruption at every level of political and religious corruption at every level of political and religious
government and even the popes of his day wer e of such bad government and even the popes of his day wer e of such bad
reputerepute
•According to him, corrupt society needs a strong According to him, corrupt society needs a strong
governmentgovernment
•He believed that monarchy or rule by a single person was the He believed that monarchy or rule by a single person was the
most preferable form of government most preferable form of government

72. Luther
•He was deeply influenced by two great medieval
philosophers- Augustine and Ockham.
•Augustine argued that sin rests in the bondage of the human Augustine argued that sin rests in the bondage of the human
will not in ignorance, therefore faith not reason that overcomeswill not in ignorance, therefore faith not reason that overcomes
our sinful predicament. our sinful predicament.
•According to Luther, things that seem impossible to reason are According to Luther, things that seem impossible to reason are
possible to faith.possible to faith.
•Ockham argued that we cannot discover God through the mere Ockham argued that we cannot discover God through the mere
use of reason and so-called proofs for his existence use of reason and so-called proofs for his existence
•We gain knowledge of God trough faith, Luther adopted this We gain knowledge of God trough faith, Luther adopted this
position wholeheartedly and rejected Aquinas’s natural position wholeheartedly and rejected Aquinas’s natural
theologytheology
•According to Luther, the problem with human reason is that According to Luther, the problem with human reason is that
being finite, it tends to reduce everything to its own limited being finite, it tends to reduce everything to its own limited
perspective.perspective.

73. ErasmusErasmus
•Desiderius Erasmus was an important figure both as as Desiderius Erasmus was an important figure both as as
humanist and for the Reformation.humanist and for the Reformation.
•He was born in Rotterdam in 1466He was born in Rotterdam in 1466
•He sought to uncover the pure and simple elements of He sought to uncover the pure and simple elements of
Christianity that had been overlaid and obscured by the Christianity that had been overlaid and obscured by the
excessive rationalism.excessive rationalism.
•When he study at the College Montaigue in Paris, his
enthusiasm for classical literature was stimulated.
•He began his first book entitled the: Adagiorium Chiliades
•He made several contributions to the spirit of renaissance.
•He saw a close similarity between Plato’s philosophy and the
teachings of Jesus.
•He mainly wished to harmonized the church’s teachings
with the new humanistic learning.

74. Montaigne
•He expressed the captivating version of classical Skepticism.
•He discovered a new way of viewing daily life.
•He saw himself as a n unpremeditated philosopher- one who He saw himself as a n unpremeditated philosopher- one who
was not confined intellectually to some rigid set of ideas was not confined intellectually to some rigid set of ideas
within which his thought and life must be expressed.within which his thought and life must be expressed.
•For him Skepticism o r the doubting attitude was a For him Skepticism o r the doubting attitude was a
liberating force.liberating force.
•According to him, contentment is possible only when we According to him, contentment is possible only when we
achieve tranquility of mind or being calm of the mind.achieve tranquility of mind or being calm of the mind.
•A good place to begin is with one’s own personal A good place to begin is with one’s own personal
experiences.experiences.
•He saw in Skepticism a source for a positive affirmation of He saw in Skepticism a source for a positive affirmation of
all facets of human life.all facets of human life.

75. PascalPascal
•Blaise Pascal was another who was strongly influenced by Blaise Pascal was another who was strongly influenced by
the resurgence of Skepticismthe resurgence of Skepticism
•He was renown as a mathematician and scientistHe was renown as a mathematician and scientist
•He laid the foundations of infinitesimal calculus and He laid the foundations of infinitesimal calculus and
integral calculusintegral calculus
•When he was 31y/o, he underwent a deep religious When he was 31y/o, he underwent a deep religious
experience which influenced the rest of his life as thinker experience which influenced the rest of his life as thinker
although he devoted himself to his deep faith to God.although he devoted himself to his deep faith to God.
•The formula for his new way of thinking is found in his The formula for his new way of thinking is found in his
famous statement “The heart has its reasons which the famous statement “The heart has its reasons which the
reason does not understand. This is quite true because if we reason does not understand. This is quite true because if we
are falling in love, our hearts has its reasons why we love are falling in love, our hearts has its reasons why we love
that person but we are unable to identify and understand that person but we are unable to identify and understand
the reason behind why we really love that person.the reason behind why we really love that person.

76. Bacon
•He assigned himself the task of reforming the philosophy He assigned himself the task of reforming the philosophy
and science of his dayand science of his day
•According to him, knowledge is power. It is true that our According to him, knowledge is power. It is true that our
knowledge will serves as our power because knowledge is the knowledge will serves as our power because knowledge is the
thing that we can really keep and we can use it wherever and thing that we can really keep and we can use it wherever and
whenever we want to use it.whenever we want to use it.
•He was destined to live, work, and think in a style befitting He was destined to live, work, and think in a style befitting
one of high social rankone of high social rank
•He was born in 1561He was born in 1561
•Through the succeeding years, he was honored by Queen Through the succeeding years, he was honored by Queen
Elizabeth and King James I as a member of Parliament, the Elizabeth and King James I as a member of Parliament, the
House of Lords, and in time became Solicitor General and Lord House of Lords, and in time became Solicitor General and Lord
ChancellorChancellor
•His philosophical works are as significant as they are His philosophical works are as significant as they are
monumental.monumental.
•The Bacon principal objective was: the total reconstructionThe Bacon principal objective was: the total reconstruction
•Of the sciences, art s and all human knowedgeOf the sciences, art s and all human knowedge

77. Distempers of Learning
•Bacon attacked past ways of thinking, calling them Bacon attacked past ways of thinking, calling them
“distempers of learning”, to which he offered a cure. “distempers of learning”, to which he offered a cure.
•He named three of these: fantastical learning, contentious He named three of these: fantastical learning, contentious
learning and delicate learning.-In fantastical learning people learning and delicate learning.-In fantastical learning people
concern themselves with words, emphasizing texts, languages concern themselves with words, emphasizing texts, languages
and styles and hunt more than matter.and styles and hunt more than matter.
•Contentious Learning is even worse he said, because it Contentious Learning is even worse he said, because it
begins with the fixed positions or points of view taken by begins with the fixed positions or points of view taken by
earlier thinkers and these view are used as the starting point earlier thinkers and these view are used as the starting point
in contentious argumentation.in contentious argumentation.
•The delicate learning wherein earlier authors who claim The delicate learning wherein earlier authors who claim
more knowledge can be proved.more knowledge can be proved.

78. IDOLS OF MIND
Bacon refers to four idols which he metaphorically Bacon refers to four idols which he metaphorically
calls the Idols of the Tribe, the Cave the Market Place and the calls the Idols of the Tribe, the Cave the Market Place and the
theatretheatre
1.)These idols, of false phantoms are distortions of the mind. 1.)These idols, of false phantoms are distortions of the mind.
The idols of tribe involve our preoccupation with opinions The idols of tribe involve our preoccupation with opinions
following from the false assertion that the sense of man is the following from the false assertion that the sense of man is the
measure of things. Simply looking at things is no guarantee measure of things. Simply looking at things is no guarantee
that we will see them as they really are.that we will see them as they really are.
2.)The idols of the Cave were taken by Bacon from the 2.)The idols of the Cave were taken by Bacon from the
Platonic allergy and again suggest the limitations of the Platonic allergy and again suggest the limitations of the
untrained mind.untrained mind.
3.)The third class of Idols is aptly designated as the idols of 3.)The third class of Idols is aptly designated as the idols of
the Market Place since it stands for the words people use.the Market Place since it stands for the words people use.

79. Hobbes
•He was born in Westspot near Malmesbury, EnglandHe was born in Westspot near Malmesbury, England
•His education at Oxford stirred in him a fascination for His education at Oxford stirred in him a fascination for
classical literature whereas his exposure to Aristotelian Logic classical literature whereas his exposure to Aristotelian Logic
left him bored.left him bored.
•In England, Hobbes was much admired by Bacon who as, In England, Hobbes was much admired by Bacon who as,
chancellor, enjoyed conversations with him to translate chancellor, enjoyed conversations with him to translate
Thucydides.Thucydides.
•In his early forties, his interest shifted to mathematics and In his early forties, his interest shifted to mathematics and
analysis with his discovery of Euclid’s Elements- a book that analysis with his discovery of Euclid’s Elements- a book that
made him in love in Geometry.made him in love in Geometry.

80. INFLUENCE OF GEOMETRY UPON HOBBES’S
THOUGHT
•His initial fascination with mathematics came from his His initial fascination with mathematics came from his
encounter with Euclid. encounter with Euclid.
•He joined that small but eloquent company of thinkers who He joined that small but eloquent company of thinkers who
saw in geometry the key to the study of nature.saw in geometry the key to the study of nature.
•He assumed that no mattered what the object of the study He assumed that no mattered what the object of the study
was, he could gain exact knowledge through the method of was, he could gain exact knowledge through the method of
observation. Sometimes our observations can really provide observation. Sometimes our observations can really provide
us reliable knowledge.us reliable knowledge.
•Hobbes called the father of modern totalitarianism although Hobbes called the father of modern totalitarianism although
not accuratenot accurate
•He describes the relation between citizen and sovereign in He describes the relation between citizen and sovereign in
such severe terms that it is no wonder he brought upon such severe terms that it is no wonder he brought upon
himself widespread criticism.himself widespread criticism.

81. Mechanical View of Human Thought
•The human minds works in various ways , ranging from The human minds works in various ways , ranging from
perception, to imagination to memory, to thinking. All types of perception, to imagination to memory, to thinking. All types of
mental activity are fundamentally the same because they are all mental activity are fundamentally the same because they are all
motions in our bodies.motions in our bodies.
•Physical or mental activity happened in our body cause motionPhysical or mental activity happened in our body cause motion
•When we at the object, we will see what Hobbes called phantasm.When we at the object, we will see what Hobbes called phantasm.
•Phantasm is the image within us caused by an object outside of us.Phantasm is the image within us caused by an object outside of us.
•For him, perception is not the sensation of motion or the sensation For him, perception is not the sensation of motion or the sensation
of the exact qualities that an object actually possesses.of the exact qualities that an object actually possesses.
•One of his concept was the retention of the image within us after One of his concept was the retention of the image within us after
the object is removed is what Hobbes means imagination.the object is removed is what Hobbes means imagination.
•Thus, thinking is something quite different from sensation and Thus, thinking is something quite different from sensation and
memory. memory.
•In sensation, the sequence of images in our mind is determined by In sensation, the sequence of images in our mind is determined by
what is happening outside of us, whereas thinking we seem to put what is happening outside of us, whereas thinking we seem to put
ideas together whichever way we wish.ideas together whichever way we wish.
•On the other hand, he proved that there is still difference between On the other hand, he proved that there is still difference between
the mind of an animal and the mind of the human being, even though the mind of an animal and the mind of the human being, even though
both of them have a sensation and memory and because of the fact both of them have a sensation and memory and because of the fact
that everyone of them has its own capacity to function.that everyone of them has its own capacity to function.

82. Ratinalism On The ContinentRatinalism On The Continent
• Rene Descartes is the founder of Continental Rationalism Rene Descartes is the founder of Continental Rationalism
and he initiated the Modern Philosophyand he initiated the Modern Philosophy
•Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz fashioned a Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz fashioned a
new vision for philosophy. Influenced by the progress of new vision for philosophy. Influenced by the progress of
science, they attempted to provide philosophy with the science, they attempted to provide philosophy with the
exactness of mathematics.exactness of mathematics.
•The rationalists assumed that what they could think clearly The rationalists assumed that what they could think clearly
with their minds did in fact exist in the world outside their with their minds did in fact exist in the world outside their
minds.minds.
•Descartes and Leibniz even argued that certain ideas are Descartes and Leibniz even argued that certain ideas are
innate in the human mind, and, given the proper occasion, innate in the human mind, and, given the proper occasion,
experience would cause these innate truths to become self-experience would cause these innate truths to become self-
evident.evident.
•Spinoza proposed a monism, saying that there is only a single Spinoza proposed a monism, saying that there is only a single
substance, namely, “Nature”.substance, namely, “Nature”.
•Leibniz was a pluralist, saying that there are different kinds Leibniz was a pluralist, saying that there are different kinds
of elemental substance which make up the world.of elemental substance which make up the world.

83. Descartes
-Descartes studied in the Jesuit college of La Fleche, where his
curriculum included mathematics, logic, and philosophy.
-He wrote his principal philosophical works, including his
Discourse on Method , Meditations on First Philosophy,
Principles of Philosophy and The Passions of the Soul.
-He went to Sweden in 1649 to instruct Queen Christina in his
philosophy. From there, he encountered bitter cold that
made him easy prey to illness.
-With a few months, he suffered an attacked of fever, and in
February, 1650, at the age of 54, he died.
THE QUEST FOR CERTAINTY
-Descartes was chiefly concerned with the problem of
intellectual certainty.
-Looking back on his studies, his study shows that ancient
literature provided him with charming fables that
stimulated his mind.

84. •He thought that by exposing himself to people of the world
he would discover more exacting reasoning , since in practical
life, as compared with scholarly activity, a mistake in
reasoning has harmful consequences.
•Descartes decided to believed nothing too certainly of
which had only been convinced by example and custom.
•He broke with the past and gave philosophy afresh start.
•He was determined to discover the basic of intellectual
certainty in his own reason.
•He gave philosophy afresh start by using only those truths
he could know through his own powers as the foundation
for all other knowledge.
•His goal is to arrived at a system of thought whose various
principles were not only true but connected in such a clear
way that we could move easily from one true principle to
another.
•He was not finding only the truth but the essence of a
particular principle.

85. DESCARTES’S METHOD
•His method consists of harnessing the abilities of the mind with His method consists of harnessing the abilities of the mind with
a special set of rules. He insisted on the necessity of method and a special set of rules. He insisted on the necessity of method and
on systematic and orderly thinking.on systematic and orderly thinking.
•The Example of MathematicsThe Example of Mathematics
•Descartes looked to mathematics for the best example of clear Descartes looked to mathematics for the best example of clear
and precise thinking. In accordance to this, numbers never lies and precise thinking. In accordance to this, numbers never lies
since he is searching for the truth, that’s the reason why his since he is searching for the truth, that’s the reason why his
specialization is mathematics because numbers always shows specialization is mathematics because numbers always shows
what’s the truth.what’s the truth.
•He wanted to make all knowledge a sort of “universal He wanted to make all knowledge a sort of “universal
mathematics”.mathematics”.
•He was convinced that the mathematical certainty is the result He was convinced that the mathematical certainty is the result
of a special way of thinking.of a special way of thinking.
•Geometry and Arithmetic are only examples of his new Geometry and Arithmetic are only examples of his new
methods.methods.
•In addition, mathematical reasoning showed how we progress In addition, mathematical reasoning showed how we progress
in an orderly way from what we do know to what we don’t in an orderly way from what we do know to what we don’t
know.know.

86. RULES OF METHOD
-This Rule is done to provide a clear and orderly procedure for the -This Rule is done to provide a clear and orderly procedure for the
operation of the mind.operation of the mind.
-It begins with a simple and absolutely clear truth and must move step -It begins with a simple and absolutely clear truth and must move step
by step without losing clarity and certainty along the way.by step without losing clarity and certainty along the way.
The following are the most important rule:The following are the most important rule:
Rule III:Rule III: When we propose to investigate a subject, our inquiries should When we propose to investigate a subject, our inquiries should
be directed, not to what others have thought, nor to what we be directed, not to what others have thought, nor to what we
ourselves conjecture . But to what we can clearly and perspicuously ourselves conjecture . But to what we can clearly and perspicuously
behold and with certainty deduce.behold and with certainty deduce.
Rule IV:Rule IV: This is a rule requiring that other rules be adhered to strictly This is a rule requiring that other rules be adhered to strictly
for if a person observes them accurately, he shall never assume what for if a person observes them accurately, he shall never assume what
is false as true, and will never spend his mental efforts to no purpose.is false as true, and will never spend his mental efforts to no purpose.
Rule V:Rule V: We shall comply with the method exactly if we “reduced We shall comply with the method exactly if we “reduced
involved and obscure propositions step by step to those that are involved and obscure propositions step by step to those that are
simpler, and then starting with the intuitive apprehension of all simpler, and then starting with the intuitive apprehension of all
those that are absolutely simple, attempt to ascend to the knowledge those that are absolutely simple, attempt to ascend to the knowledge
of all others by precisely similar steps.of all others by precisely similar steps.
Rule VIII:Rule VIII: If in the matters to be examined we come to a step in the series If in the matters to be examined we come to a step in the series
of which our understanding is not sufficiently well able to have a of which our understanding is not sufficiently well able to have a
intuitive cognition, we must stop short there.intuitive cognition, we must stop short there.

87. SpinozaSpinoza
--Baruch Spinoza was among the greatest of Jewish philosophers. Baruch Spinoza was among the greatest of Jewish philosophers.
-His refusal to accept the chair of philosophy at Heidelberg was -His refusal to accept the chair of philosophy at Heidelberg was
further evidence of his desire to preserve his freedom to further evidence of his desire to preserve his freedom to
pursue his ideas wherever the search for truth might lead him.pursue his ideas wherever the search for truth might lead him.
-He was born in Amsterdam in 1632 in a family of a Portuguese -He was born in Amsterdam in 1632 in a family of a Portuguese
Jews who had fled from persecution in SpainJews who had fled from persecution in Spain
-He was influenced by Descartes' rationalism. Their interest is -He was influenced by Descartes' rationalism. Their interest is
similar but Spinoza was not a follower of Descartes. Spinoza similar but Spinoza was not a follower of Descartes. Spinoza
only add new philosophical thought about continental only add new philosophical thought about continental
rationalism.rationalism.
SPINOZA’S METHODSPINOZA’S METHOD
-He thought that we can achieve exact knowledge of reality by -He thought that we can achieve exact knowledge of reality by
following the method of geometry.following the method of geometry.
-Descartes and Spinoza has the same principle that numbers -Descartes and Spinoza has the same principle that numbers
symbolizes truth and it is exact, Spinoza add some symbolizes truth and it is exact, Spinoza add some
philosophical thoughts with regards with this.philosophical thoughts with regards with this.

88. KNOWLEDGE, MIND AND BODYKNOWLEDGE, MIND AND BODY
--Spinoza distinguished between three levels of knowledge and Spinoza distinguished between three levels of knowledge and
describes how we can move from the lowest to highest.describes how we can move from the lowest to highest.
-”The more we understand individual things, the more we -”The more we understand individual things, the more we
understand God”- by refining our knowledge of things, we can understand God”- by refining our knowledge of things, we can
move from (1) Imagination (2) reason (3) intuition)move from (1) Imagination (2) reason (3) intuition)
1.1.At a level of At a level of imaginationimagination, our ideas are derived from sensation., our ideas are derived from sensation.
-We find to get/create new ideas by using our sense and from -We find to get/create new ideas by using our sense and from
there, we can be able to create an imagination.there, we can be able to create an imagination.
2. The second level of knowledge goes beyond imagination to 2. The second level of knowledge goes beyond imagination to
reason. reason. This is a scientific knowledge.This is a scientific knowledge.
--From the idea that we had, we can know if our idea is reliable by From the idea that we had, we can know if our idea is reliable by
reasoning.reasoning.
-3. The third and highest level of knowledge is -3. The third and highest level of knowledge is intuitionintuition. Through . Through
intuition, we can grasp the whole system of Nature.intuition, we can grasp the whole system of Nature.

89. LeibnizLeibniz
-Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz showed unmistakable signs of a
brilliant mind.
-He developed infinitesimal calculus and published his results
three years before Sir Isaac Newton had released his
manuscript to the printers.
-Leibniz was born at Leipzig in 1646 and entered the
University there at the age of 15.
-At Leipzig, he studied philosophy.
SUBSTANCE
-Leibniz was dissatisfied with the way Descartes
and Spinoza had described the nature of substance.
-Spinoza’s monism was a pantheism in which God was
everything and everything was part of everything else. In
part of this, God is everything because he is the one who
created the universe and all the things in this world is
created by God.

90. EXTENSION VERSUS FORCE
-According to Descartes and Spinoza extension implies three dimensional -According to Descartes and Spinoza extension implies three dimensional
size and shape.size and shape.
-Descartes assumed that extension refers to a material substance that is -Descartes assumed that extension refers to a material substance that is
extended in space and is not divisible into something more primary. extended in space and is not divisible into something more primary.
-Observing that the bodies or things we see with our senses are divisible -Observing that the bodies or things we see with our senses are divisible
into smaller parts.into smaller parts.
MONADSMONADS
-Democritus and Epicurus, argued that all things are atoms but Leibniz -Democritus and Epicurus, argued that all things are atoms but Leibniz
rejected this notion of atoms, because Democritus had described these rejected this notion of atoms, because Democritus had described these
atoms as extended bodies, as irreducible bits of matter.atoms as extended bodies, as irreducible bits of matter.
-Leibniz argued that the truly simple substances are the monads and -Leibniz argued that the truly simple substances are the monads and
these are “the true atoms of nature……… the elements of things”these are “the true atoms of nature……… the elements of things”
-Leibniz wanted to emphasized that substance must contain life or a -Leibniz wanted to emphasized that substance must contain life or a
dynamic forcedynamic force
-A monad is a point, not a mathematical or a physical point but a -A monad is a point, not a mathematical or a physical point but a
metaphysically existent point. metaphysically existent point.
-Each monad is independent of other monads.-Each monad is independent of other monads.
-Leibniz was saying that monad are logically prior to any corporeal forms-Leibniz was saying that monad are logically prior to any corporeal forms

91. EVIL AND THE BEST OF ALL POSSIBLE EVIL AND THE BEST OF ALL POSSIBLE
WORLDSWORLDS
-The harmony of the world le Leibniz to argue not only that God had -The harmony of the world le Leibniz to argue not only that God had
preestablished it but also that in doing this God created the best preestablished it but also that in doing this God created the best
of all possible worlds.of all possible worlds.
-Leibniz was aware of the fact of evil and disorder but considered it -Leibniz was aware of the fact of evil and disorder but considered it
compatible with the notion of a benevolent creator.compatible with the notion of a benevolent creator.
-The source of evil is not God but rather the very nature of things -The source of evil is not God but rather the very nature of things
God creates, for as these things are finite or limited, they are God creates, for as these things are finite or limited, they are
imperfect.imperfect.
FREEDOMFREEDOM
-According to Leibniz, freedom does not mean volition – it is the -According to Leibniz, freedom does not mean volition – it is the
power of choice.power of choice.
-Freedom means the power of choice, we consider ourselves free -Freedom means the power of choice, we consider ourselves free
because we are able to do what we want and that is our choice..because we are able to do what we want and that is our choice..
-Freedom in this sense, means the ability to become what we are -Freedom in this sense, means the ability to become what we are
destined to be without obstructions.destined to be without obstructions.
-Although we are determine ton act in specific ways, it is our own -Although we are determine ton act in specific ways, it is our own
internal nature that determines our acts.internal nature that determines our acts.

92. KNOWLEDGE AND NATUREKNOWLEDGE AND NATURE
-For Leibniz, to know the subject is already to know -For Leibniz, to know the subject is already to know
certain predicates,certain predicates,
-Leibniz distinguished between truths of reason and -Leibniz distinguished between truths of reason and
truths of facts.truths of facts.
-According to him, truths of reason is purely by logic and -According to him, truths of reason is purely by logic and
the truths of fact is by experience.the truths of fact is by experience.
-Mathematics is a striking example of the truth of reason, -Mathematics is a striking example of the truth of reason,
since its propositions are true when they pass the test since its propositions are true when they pass the test
of the law of contradiction.of the law of contradiction.
-The truth of fact are known through experience and they -The truth of fact are known through experience and they
are not necessary a propositions.are not necessary a propositions.

93. Utilitarianism and PositivismUtilitarianism and Positivism
according to this theory, moral
actions are those which produce the
greatest number of people.
it is the belief that utility of actions
determines moral value.
it is about a person’s act where all
members will benefit.
UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

94. PositivismPositivism
according to this theory, we should
reject any investigation that does not
rest on direct observation.
 it is the belief that if things are not
observable or existing then it is not
knowable.
believes that authentic knowledge is
scientific knowledge.

95. Bentham and Mill
argued that moral goodness involves achieving the
greatest amount of pleasure and minimizing the greatest
amount of pain for the greatest number of people.
According to them, moral goodness is the additional
virtue of scientific accuracy.
Hobbes
had already tried to construct a science of human nature
and turned his back on traditional moral thought,
emphasizing instead people’s selfish concern for their own
pleasure.
Hume
ethics for him has something to do with our experiences
of sympathetic pleasure.

96. Jeremy BenthamJeremy Bentham
Life:
born 1748 in Red Lion Street, Houndsditch, London.
showed early signs of intellectual abilities.
at age 4, he was already studying Latin grammar.
at age 8, he was sent off to Westminster School.
at age 12, he entered Queen’s College in Oxford.
1763, he took BA degree in Lincoln’s Inn
returned to Oxford because of William Blackstone.
with deep concentration, he had observed the fallacy respecting
natural rights.
formulated the ‘rhetorical nonsense – nonsense on stilts’.
tried to bring order and moral defensibility into what he
considered the deplorable state of both the law and the social
realities that the law made possible.
“A Fragment on Government” (1776), his first book that was an
attack on Blackstone.
remained as a powerful public figure until his death 1832, age of
84.

97. The Principle of UtilityThe Principle of Utility
nature has placed mankind whether under pain or pleasure.nature has placed mankind whether under pain or pleasure.
each person only concern on gaining and maximizing happiness each person only concern on gaining and maximizing happiness
and in people’s life not only pleasures but also pains gives the real and in people’s life not only pleasures but also pains gives the real
value of actions taking place.value of actions taking place.
SanctionsSanctions
sources of pleasures and pains which may also be called as sources of pleasures and pains which may also be called as
causes of behavior.causes of behavior.
• • PhysicalPhysical
• • PoliticalPolitical
• • MoralMoral
• • ReligiousReligious
The Pleasure – Pain CalculusThe Pleasure – Pain Calculus
*Lots – mathematical units for pleasure or pain.*Lots – mathematical units for pleasure or pain.
- the value depends on pleasure’s intensity, - the value depends on pleasure’s intensity,
duration duration certainty and propinquity or nearness.certainty and propinquity or nearness.
- According to Bentham, in balancing the sum of the values of - According to Bentham, in balancing the sum of the values of
pleasures on the side and the sum of the values of pains on the pleasures on the side and the sum of the values of pains on the
other side, the act is good if it be on the pleasure side while if it be other side, the act is good if it be on the pleasure side while if it be
on the pain side, the act is bad.on the pain side, the act is bad.

98. Law and PunishmentLaw and Punishment
use of the principle of utility.use of the principle of utility.
The Object of LawThe Object of Law
*Legislation – (Bentham’s method) to measure the ‘mischief *Legislation – (Bentham’s method) to measure the ‘mischief
of an act’ consisting consequences that the act which produces pain of an act’ consisting consequences that the act which produces pain
or evil must be discouraged.or evil must be discouraged.
*Law – eliminates and discourage evil doings for the sake of *Law – eliminates and discourage evil doings for the sake of
giving total happiness of the whole community.giving total happiness of the whole community.
Punishment
“all punishment is in itself evil” (Bentham) because it causes pain
and suffering.
since the object of law aims to augment total happiness in the
community, punishment done must be useful in order to attain the
goal of having totality pleasure.
according to Bentham, punishment should not be inflicted in the
following situations:
1. when punishment is groundless
2. when punishment is inefficacious
3. when punishment is unprofitable or too expensive
4. when punishment is needless

99. Punishment should be:Punishment should be:
variable to fit the particular casevariable to fit the particular case
equable so as to inflict equal painequable so as to inflict equal pain
commensurable that punishment of different crimes be commensurable that punishment of different crimes be
proportionproportion
frugal so as not to be excessivefrugal so as not to be excessive
reformatory in order to correct behaviorreformatory in order to correct behavior
disabling to discourage future offendersdisabling to discourage future offenders
compensatory to the sufferercompensatory to the sufferer
capable of remittance for sufficient cause and should have capable of remittance for sufficient cause and should have
popular acceptancepopular acceptance
Bentham’s RadicalismBentham’s Radicalism
*Philosophical Radicals – utilitarian group who *Philosophical Radicals – utilitarian group who
eagerly attempted to reform the evils in the society.eagerly attempted to reform the evils in the society.
aims to achieve the greatest happiness of the greatest aims to achieve the greatest happiness of the greatest
number.number.
they thought of putting the government in the hands of the they thought of putting the government in the hands of the
people to prevent self- interest and abuse or misuse of people to prevent self- interest and abuse or misuse of
power.power.

100. John Stuart MillJohn Stuart Mill
born in 1806.
between ages 3 and 4, he was the object of a rigorous
‘educational experiment’.
at the age of 20, he fell into a dull state of nerves because
of the intense learning that took its toll on young Mill.
married with Harriet Taylor (1807 – 1858), an acclaimed
philosopher in her own right.
system of logic (1842), Priciples of Political Economy
(1848), the essay On Liberty (1859), the essay On
Utilitarianism (1861) are some of his literary
achievements.
his father, James Mill, became a huge influence to him
together with other philosophers like Bentham where he
got ideas on its literary works.
when Bentham died, Mill was 26 years old and started his
own philosophy on utilitarianism where to distinguish his
approach from that of Bentham’s in significant way.

101. Mill’s UtilitarianismMill’s Utilitarianism
writes his ideas and thoughts about utilitarianism that writes his ideas and thoughts about utilitarianism that
is different from his father and Bentham.is different from his father and Bentham.
Qualitative versus Quantitative ApproachQualitative versus Quantitative Approach
Bentham uses quantitative approach to pleasure by Bentham uses quantitative approach to pleasure by
using analogies like pushpin and that of a thermometer using analogies like pushpin and that of a thermometer
according to him just as a thermometer measures the according to him just as a thermometer measures the
different degrees of heat, so also a ‘moral thermometer’ different degrees of heat, so also a ‘moral thermometer’
could measure the degrees of happiness or unhappiness.could measure the degrees of happiness or unhappiness.
On the other side, Mill alters these ideas and use On the other side, Mill alters these ideas and use
qualitative approach to pleasure. The qualitative aspect qualitative approach to pleasure. The qualitative aspect
of pleasure, Mill thought, was as much an empirical fact of pleasure, Mill thought, was as much an empirical fact
as was the quantitative element on which Bentham as was the quantitative element on which Bentham
placed his entire emphasis.placed his entire emphasis.
Higher happiness, then, is the aim of all human life, a Higher happiness, then, is the aim of all human life, a
life ‘exempt as far as possible from pain, and as rich as life ‘exempt as far as possible from pain, and as rich as
possible in enjoyments’.possible in enjoyments’.

102. LibertyLiberty
Mill argued that the sole end for which mankind are Mill argued that the sole end for which mankind are
warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the
liberty of action of any of their number, is self – protection.liberty of action of any of their number, is self – protection.
Three conditions under which the Government should not Three conditions under which the Government should not
interfere with:interfere with:
1. Government should not interfere when private individuals 1. Government should not interfere when private individuals
can perform the action better.can perform the action better.
2. Governments should not interfere when it is desirable for the 2. Governments should not interfere when it is desirable for the
individuals to do it for their development and education.individuals to do it for their development and education.
3. Government should not interfere when there is danger that 3. Government should not interfere when there is danger that
too much power will unnecessarily accrue to the government.too much power will unnecessarily accrue to the government.
Mill is pointing out here that the government should Mill is pointing out here that the government should
discourage the use of liberty if people harm other people but not discourage the use of liberty if people harm other people but not
when their selves only. It is better to exercise our own liberty when their selves only. It is better to exercise our own liberty
and put ourselves at risk for the sake and benefit of others.and put ourselves at risk for the sake and benefit of others.

103. ComteComte
•Auguste Comte is the founder of positivism, a
philosophical and political movement which enjoyed a very
wide diffusion in the second half of the nineteenth century.
It sank into an almost complete oblivion during the
twentieth, when it was eclipsed by neopositivism.
•Comte's decision to develop successively a philosophy of
mathematics, a philosophy of physics, a philosophy of
chemistry and a philosophy of biology, makes him the first
philosopher of science in the modern sense, and his constant
attention to the social dimension of science resonates in
many respects with current points of view.
•His political philosophy, on the other hand, is even less
known, because it differs substantially from the classical
political philosophy we have inherited.

104. 1824- he published a series of books of which his
Systeme ae Politique Positive
1851-1854- his second Le systeme de politique
positive
1852- Catechisme positiviste
1856- Synthese subjective
1857- His career ended when he died at the age of 59
His objective: was the total reorganization of society.
But he was convinced that this practical objective
first required the reconstruction or at least
reformation of the intellectual orientation of his era.

105. The Law of the Three strategiesThe Law of the Three strategies
Each stage representing a different way of discovering
truth
 
First stage is THEOLOGICAL, people explain phenomena
in reference to divine causal forces.
Second stage is METAPHYSICAL, replaces human
centered concepts of divinity with impersonal and
abstract forces.
Third stage is POSITIVISTIC, that only the constant
relations between phenomena are considered and all
attempts to explain things by reference to beings beyond
our experience are given up.
 
He believed that this law is at work in the history of
ideas, in science, and in the political realm.
 
 

106. Nietzsche Nietzsche
•Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was a 19th century German
philosopher and classical philologist.
•He’s influence remains substantial within and beyond
philosophy, notably in existentialism and postmodernism.
•His style and radical questioning of the value and
objectivity of truth have resulted in much commentary and
interpretation, mostly in the continental tradition, and to a
lesser extent in analytic philosophy.
•His key ideas include the interpretation of tragedy as an
affirmation of life, an eternal recurrence, a rejection of
Platonism and a repudiation of both Christianity and
egalitarianism.

107. •He calls himself an "immoralist" and harshly criticizes the
prominent moral schemes of his day: Christianity,
Kantianism, and utilitarianism.
•He did not want to destroy morality, but rather to initiate a
re-evaluation of the values of the Judeo-Christian world.
•He indicates his desire to bring about a new, more
naturalistic source of value in the vital impulses of life itself.
•He presents master-morality as the original system of
morality — perhaps best associated with Homeric Greece.
•Value arises as a contrast between good and bad, or between
'life-affirming' and 'life-denying': wealth, strength, health, and
power (the sort of traits found in a Homeric hero) count as
good; while bad is associated with the poor, weak, sick, and
pathetic (the sort of traits conventionally associated with
slaves in ancient times).

108. •According to him, recent developments in modern
science and the increasing secularization of European
society had effectively 'killed' the Christian God, who
had served as the basis for meaning and value in the
West for more than a thousand years.
•He claimed the 'death' of God would eventually lead to
the loss of any universal perspective on things, and
along with it any coherent sense of objective truth.
Instead we would retain only our own multiple,
diverse, and fluid perspectives. This view has acquired
the name "perspectivism".
•Developing this idea, Nietzsche wrote ‘Thus Spoke
Zarathustra’, therein introducing the concept of a
value-creating Ubermensch.
God is Dead

109. •This provides a basis for understanding motivation in
human behavior.
• He suggests that the will to power is a more important
element than pressure for adaptation or survival.
•According to Nietzsche's concept, the will to power
applies to all living things, suggesting that adaptation and
the struggle to survive is a secondary drive in the
evolution of animals, less important than the desire to
expand one’s power.
•Nietzsche eventually took this concept further still, and
transformed the idea of matter as centers of force into
matter as centers of will to power.
•Nietzsche wanted to dispense with the theory of matter,
which he viewed as a relic of the metaphysics of substance
Will to Power

110. •He was a philosopher, political economist, historian,
political theorist, sociologist, communist and
revolutionary, whose ideas are credited as the foundation
of modern communism.
•He summarized his approach in the first line of the first
chapter of The Communist Manifesto, published in 1848:
“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of
class struggles.”
•He argued that capitalism, like previous socioeconomic
systems, will inevitably produce internal tensions which
will lead to its destruction.
•He believed socialism will, in its turn, replace capitalism,
and lead to a stateless, classless society called pure
communism.
MarxMarx

111. •He assumed that human nature involves transforming
nature. To this process of transformation he applies the
term "labour", and to the capacity to transform nature
the term "labour power."
•He sees transformation as a simultaneously physical and
mental act.
•Marx's analysis of history focuses on the organization of
labor and depends on his distinction between:
1. the means / forces of production, literally those things
(like land, natural resources, and technology) necessary
for the production of material goods; and
2.the relations of production, in other words, the social
relationships people enter into as they acquire and use
the means of production.

112. Pragmatism and Process Philosophy
was more of a method of solving problems was more of a method of solving problems
than it was a metaphysical system of the than it was a metaphysical system of the
world. world.
mediated between two traditions, one on mediated between two traditions, one on
Darwin’s theory and Descartes rationalistic Darwin’s theory and Descartes rationalistic
philosophy. philosophy.
PragmatismPragmatism
Process philosophyProcess philosophy
did not offer a specific vision of the nature of did not offer a specific vision of the nature of
things.things.

113. PiercePierce
Charles Sanders he was born in 1839.
He was educated in mathematics, science and
philosophy at home under his father’s
discipline.
at ages 16 and 20, he studied at Harvard
College.
Received an MA in mathematics and chemistry
and work for 3 years at Harvard Observatory.
Little of his total literary output appeared
during his lifetime because of resistance from
publishers.

114. Theory of MeaningTheory of Meaning

Pragmatism comes from the Greek word ‘pragma’ Pragmatism comes from the Greek word ‘pragma’
meaning act and deeds which implies that words derive meaning act and deeds which implies that words derive
their meaning to actions.their meaning to actions.
 Pierce is that our idea of anything is our idea of its Pierce is that our idea of anything is our idea of its
sensible effects. Thus, a word has no meaning if it refers to sensible effects. Thus, a word has no meaning if it refers to
an object about which no practical effects can be an object about which no practical effects can be
conceived.conceived.
 Meaning are not individual or private but social and Meaning are not individual or private but social and
public because we derive meaning from our experiences.public because we derive meaning from our experiences.
Elements of Meaning:Elements of Meaning:
1. 1. Method of science requires that we state not only what Method of science requires that we state not only what
truth we believe but also how arrived at it.truth we believe but also how arrived at it.
2. Method of science is highly self – critical. 2. Method of science is highly self – critical.
3. Method of science requires a high degree of cooperation 3. Method of science requires a high degree of cooperation
among all members of the scientific community.among all members of the scientific community.

115. James
William James born in 1842 and came from a
cultured family.
Receives his MD from Harvard Medical School.
Moved from psychology and philosophy, producing
the famous principles of psychology.
Died in 1910 at age of 68.
Had fashioned a new approach and philosophy and
managed to communicate his pragmatic principles to
an unusually wide audience.

116. Pragmatism as a methodPragmatism as a method
assumed that human life has a purpose and that rival theories about assumed that human life has a purpose and that rival theories about
human nature and the world to be tested against this purpose.human nature and the world to be tested against this purpose.
pragmatism takes its cue from the newly discovered facts of life.pragmatism takes its cue from the newly discovered facts of life.
The Pragmatic theory of TruthThe Pragmatic theory of Truth
**Truth – essentially an inert static relation.Truth – essentially an inert static relation.
According to James, when you got your true idea of anything, there’s an According to James, when you got your true idea of anything, there’s an
end of the matter because as well as all believe. Life is a never ending end of the matter because as well as all believe. Life is a never ending
search for truth throughout our lives and if a certain truth have been search for truth throughout our lives and if a certain truth have been
found, then, that’s the end of it.found, then, that’s the end of it.
Truth then lives on a credit system because it is said that for one truth Truth then lives on a credit system because it is said that for one truth
process completed, there are million in our lives that function in this state process completed, there are million in our lives that function in this state
of nascency. of nascency.
He also distinguish the difference between tough- minded and tender - He also distinguish the difference between tough- minded and tender -
minded approaches to truthminded approaches to truth
• • Pragmatist would look only at more specific kinds of successful Pragmatist would look only at more specific kinds of successful
behavior.behavior.
• • Pragmatists would consider less scientific behavior in the truth process.Pragmatists would consider less scientific behavior in the truth process.

117. Free WillFree Will
*Will – relates solely to the existence of *Will – relates solely to the existence of
possibilities.possibilities.
In the issue about whether human will is free or In the issue about whether human will is free or
determined, James uses pragmatic approach and different determined, James uses pragmatic approach and different
ideas arises. He believes that what makes us different is ideas arises. He believes that what makes us different is
our consciousness. For one thing, we are capable of our consciousness. For one thing, we are capable of
judgments of regrets. Not only do we make judgments of judgments of regrets. Not only do we make judgments of
regrets but we make moral judgments of approval and regrets but we make moral judgments of approval and
disapproval. disapproval.
It is said that determined will is simply not a choice. For It is said that determined will is simply not a choice. For
James, free will is more true because it better James, free will is more true because it better
accommodates judgments of regret and morality.accommodates judgments of regret and morality.

118. The Will to Believe
when reason is truly neutral on an urgent issue, we may
rightfully believe based solely on our feelings, agues James on his
essay “The Will to Believe”.
his pointing out that the will of a person to believe in an issue
where in the reason is neutral just like the question about God’s
existence, the person tends to use his feelings to choose what he
wanted to believe.
Three conditions that determine when emotionally based
beliefs are justified:
1. The belief must be a live option.
2. The choice must be forced in the sense that we may
either accept or reject the conception.
3. The issue must be momentous or a major concern.
In general, when reason is neutral in matters that are genuine
options, we can decide the issue based on our hopes and feelings
according to what James believes.

119. Empiricism in BritainEmpiricism in Britain
•Empiricism is a theory of knowledge which asserts that
knowledge arises from experience.
- emphasizes the role of experience and evidence,
especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas,
while discounting the notion of innate ideas.
•John Locke who was the founder of empiricism in
Britain, aimed at the more modest objective of “clearing
the ground a little, and removing some of the rubbish that
lies the way knowledge”.
•The scope of our knowledge is limited to our experience.
It simply means that if ever we do not experience
anything we are lack of knowledge but if we experience
many thing we are said to be full of knowledge.
•Without challenge the general view that we can attain
certain knowledge, so long as we use the proper method.

120. Locke
•John Locke was born at Wrington, a village in Somerset, on John Locke was born at Wrington, a village in Somerset, on
August 29, 1632. He was the son of a country solicitor and August 29, 1632. He was the son of a country solicitor and
small landowner who, when the civil war broke out, served small landowner who, when the civil war broke out, served
as a captain of horse in the parliamentary army. "I no sooner as a captain of horse in the parliamentary army. "I no sooner
perceived myself in the world than I found myself in a perceived myself in the world than I found myself in a
storm," he wrote long afterwards, during the lull in the storm," he wrote long afterwards, during the lull in the
storm which followed the king's return. But political unrest storm which followed the king's return. But political unrest
does not seem to have seriously disturbed the course of his does not seem to have seriously disturbed the course of his
education. education.
•1646-He entered Westminster school 1646-He entered Westminster school
•1652-passed to Christ Church, Oxford, as a junior student1652-passed to Christ Church, Oxford, as a junior student
•1684-deprived of his studentship by royal mandate 1684-deprived of his studentship by royal mandate
•1659-he was elected to a senior studentship 1659-he was elected to a senior studentship
•1666- he declined an offer of preferment 1666- he declined an offer of preferment
•1668- he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society 1668- he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
•May 1689- He was made commissioner of appealsMay 1689- He was made commissioner of appeals
•1696 to 1700-he was a commissioner of trade and 1696 to 1700-he was a commissioner of trade and
plantations at a salary of L1000 a yearplantations at a salary of L1000 a year
•October 28, 1704- his death October 28, 1704- his death

121. Locke’s Theory of Knowledge
•He determined the limits of knowledge and He determined the limits of knowledge and
can decide what constitutes intellectual can decide what constitutes intellectual
certainty.certainty.
•He also said that all our ideas come to us He also said that all our ideas come to us
through some kind of experience. This means through some kind of experience. This means
that each person’s mind is in the beginning like that each person’s mind is in the beginning like
a blank sheet of paper upon which experience a blank sheet of paper upon which experience
alone can subsequently write knowledge. alone can subsequently write knowledge.
•  
•No innate ideas: means Ideas or concepts that No innate ideas: means Ideas or concepts that
we allegedly acquire or possess prior to we allegedly acquire or possess prior to
experience can be called a priori. Belief in experience can be called a priori. Belief in
innate ideas is one form of nativism.innate ideas is one form of nativism.
•  

122. Primary and Secondary QualitiesPrimary and Secondary Qualities
  
•Primary Qualities- those that really exist in the
bodies themselves. It refers to the solidity,
figure and number that belong to the object.
•Secondary Qualities- produce ideas in our
minds that have no exact counterpart in the
object. Refers to colors, tastes, sounds and
odors.
•The importance of these qualities is that
distinction between the appearance and reality.

123. The degree of knowledge
•Knowledge is defines as nothing more than the
perception of the connection of an agreement or
disagreement and repugnancy of any of our ideas.
•Intuitive knowledge- the clearest and the most
certain that human frailty is capable of. From
intuition we know that we exist. Experience can
convince us that we have intuitive knowledge of our
own existence.
•Demonstrative knowledge – it occurs when our
minds try to discover the agreement or disagreement
of ideas by calling attention to still other ideas.
•Sensitive knowledge- is not knowledge in the strict
sense of the term it only passes under the name of
knowledge.

124. BerkeleyBerkeley
  
George Berkeley or also known as Bishop Berkeley, George Berkeley or also known as Bishop Berkeley,
he was an Anglo-Irish philosopher whose achievement he was an Anglo-Irish philosopher whose achievement
was the advancement of a theory immaterialism. was the advancement of a theory immaterialism.
1709-His earliest publication was a mathematical 1709-His earliest publication was a mathematical
one but the first which brought him into notice was one but the first which brought him into notice was
his his Essay towards a New Theory of VisionEssay towards a New Theory of Vision, first , first
published published
1710-His most widely-read works are A treatise 1710-His most widely-read works are A treatise
concerning the Principles of Human Knowledgeconcerning the Principles of Human Knowledge
1713- Three Dialogues between Hylas and Phinolous1713- Three Dialogues between Hylas and Phinolous
1734-he published The Analyst, a critique of the 1734-he published The Analyst, a critique of the
foundations of infinitesimal calculus, which was foundations of infinitesimal calculus, which was
influential in the development of mathematics.influential in the development of mathematics.

125. God and the Existence Of things
•  
•He did not deny the existence of things or He did not deny the existence of things or
their order in nature, it was necessary for him their order in nature, it was necessary for him
to explain how things external to our minds to explain how things external to our minds
exist even we don’t perceive them and how exist even we don’t perceive them and how
they achieve their order. And because all they achieve their order. And because all
human minds are intermittently diverted human minds are intermittently diverted
from things there is an omnipresent eternal from things there is an omnipresent eternal
mind which knows and comprehends all mind which knows and comprehends all
things and exhibits them to our view in a things and exhibits them to our view in a
manner to such rules as he himself has manner to such rules as he himself has
ordained and are us termed the Laws of ordained and are us termed the Laws of
Nature. Nature.
•The existence of things depends on the The existence of things depends on the
existence of God and God is the cause of the existence of God and God is the cause of the
orderliness of the things in nature.orderliness of the things in nature.

126. HumeHume
•David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, economist, David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, economist,
historian and a key figure in the history of Western historian and a key figure in the history of Western
Philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. Philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment.
•He is the son of Joseph Home of Chirnside, advocate, He is the son of Joseph Home of Chirnside, advocate,
and Katherine Lady Falconer, was born on 26 April and Katherine Lady Falconer, was born on 26 April
1711 in a tenement on the north side of the 1711 in a tenement on the north side of the
Lawnmarket in Edinburgh. Lawnmarket in Edinburgh.
•He changed his name in 1734 because the English had He changed his name in 1734 because the English had
difficulty pronouncing 'Home' in the Scottish manner. difficulty pronouncing 'Home' in the Scottish manner.
Throughout his life Hume, who never married, spent Throughout his life Hume, who never married, spent
time occasionally at his family home at Ninewells by time occasionally at his family home at Ninewells by
Chirnside, Berwickshare. Chirnside, Berwickshare.
•Hume was politically a Whig.Hume was politically a Whig.

127. KantKant
•Immanuel Kant was the last influential philosopher of modern Immanuel Kant was the last influential philosopher of modern
Europe in the classic sequence of the theory of knowledge during Europe in the classic sequence of the theory of knowledge during
the Enlightenment beginning with thinkers John Locke, George the Enlightenment beginning with thinkers John Locke, George
Berkeley, and David Hume. In terms of influence, it is often said Berkeley, and David Hume. In terms of influence, it is often said
that there are only three towering figures in western that there are only three towering figures in western
philosophy, namely, Plato, Aristotle, and Kant.philosophy, namely, Plato, Aristotle, and Kant.
•He was born in the East Prussian city of Königsberg, studied at He was born in the East Prussian city of Königsberg, studied at
its university, and worked there as a tutor and professor for its university, and worked there as a tutor and professor for
more than forty years, never travelling more than fifty miles more than forty years, never travelling more than fifty miles
from home. from home.
•Although his outward life was one of legendary calm and Although his outward life was one of legendary calm and
regularity, Kant's intellectual work easily justified his own regularity, Kant's intellectual work easily justified his own
claim to have effected a Copernican revolution in philosophy. claim to have effected a Copernican revolution in philosophy.
Beginning with his Inaugural Dissertation (1770) on the Beginning with his Inaugural Dissertation (1770) on the
difference between right- and left-handed spatial orientations, difference between right- and left-handed spatial orientations,
Kant patiently worked out the most comprehensive and Kant patiently worked out the most comprehensive and
influential philosophical programme of the modern era. His influential philosophical programme of the modern era. His
central thesis—that the possibility of human knowledge central thesis—that the possibility of human knowledge
presupposes the active participation of the human mind —is presupposes the active participation of the human mind —is
deceptively simple, but the details of its application are deceptively simple, but the details of its application are
notoriously complex.notoriously complex.

128. Kant’s Critical Philosophy and His Kant’s Critical Philosophy and His
Copernican RevolutionCopernican Revolution
•Kant’s answer to the question is complicated, but Kant’s answer to the question is complicated, but
his conclusion is that a number of synthetic a priori his conclusion is that a number of synthetic a priori
claims, like those from geometry and the natural claims, like those from geometry and the natural
sciences, are true because of the structure of the sciences, are true because of the structure of the
mind that knows them.mind that knows them.
• “ “Every event must have a cause” cannot be proven Every event must have a cause” cannot be proven
by experience, but experience is impossible without by experience, but experience is impossible without
it because it describes the way the mind must it because it describes the way the mind must
necessarily order its representations. We can necessarily order its representations. We can
understand Kant’s argument again by considering understand Kant’s argument again by considering
his predecessors. his predecessors.
•Kant’s crucial insight here is to argue that Kant’s crucial insight here is to argue that
experience of a world as we have it is only possible if experience of a world as we have it is only possible if
the mind provides a systematic structuring of its the mind provides a systematic structuring of its
representations.representations.

129. Analytic PhilosophyAnalytic Philosophy
 One of the dominant philosophical movement in the
English speaking world during 20
th
century.
 Analytic philosopher during this time has a big difference
to other ordinary philosopher because of their unique
methods for addressing issues.
 It aspires for a very high level of clarification and the
precision of formulation and argument.
Positive Side
 Clarify that the new assumption was that philosopher can
render a genuine service by carefully unraveling complex
problems whose origin rests in the imprecise use of
language.
 It only support the idea that analytic philosophers
required clarification.
 For them, philosophy function as the proofreader of the
scientists’ expressions, checking the literature of science
for its clarity and logical meaningfulness.

130. Negative Side:Negative Side:
 Stated that the philosopher does not formulate philosophical Stated that the philosopher does not formulate philosophical
propositions meant for the early analysts that there must be propositions meant for the early analysts that there must be
imposed limits on the scope of philosophical activity.imposed limits on the scope of philosophical activity.
 Said that philosophers have a great task and role in finding a Said that philosophers have a great task and role in finding a
more deeper solution on a problem.more deeper solution on a problem.
 They are not involved in finding a nature of reality but it is the They are not involved in finding a nature of reality but it is the
scientists tasks.scientists tasks.
Russell's Mission
 One of the Hegelian philosophers who engaged in the idealist
task of system building.
 He was a brilliant mathematician, trained in precise thought,
and in comparison with the language seemed to him loose and
obscure.
 He tried to analyze the “facts” for the purpose of inventing a
new language, namely, logical atomism.

131. Logical Atomism
“the kind of philosophy that I wish to advocate, which I
call logical atomism, is one which has forced itself upon
me in the course of thinking about the philosophy of
mathematics” said Russell.
Russell set out first to analyze certain “facts” which he
differentiated from “things”.
His basic assumption was that facts, since they have
components, must be in some sense complex, and hence
must be susceptible to analysis.
According to Russell, language is consists of a unique
arrangement of words, and the meaningfulness of
language is determined by the accuracy with which these
words represents facts.
Atomic fact is a term when a fact is of its simplest kind.
Atomic propositions are propositions that state atomic
facts.

132. Logical PositivismLogical Positivism
A dominant philosophy of science.
19
th
century positivists were disposed to reject metaphysics as
outdated by science.
The Principle of VerificationThe Principle of Verification
Accordingly, the logical positivists formulated the verification
principle.
If a statement passes the stringent requirements of the
verification principle, then it is meaningful, and if a statement
fails to do so, then it is meaningless.
It offers a two-pronged test. A statement is meaningful if it is
either:
1.Analytic which means that it is true by definition. It derived
meanings based on the definitions of their words and symbols. It
also has a formal meanings and comes from mathematics and logic.
2.Empirically verifiable which means that the statement is one
whose truth rests on some kind of empirical observation. Logical
positivists believed that we actually verify the truth or falsehood
of a given statement.

133. Carnap’s Logical AnalysisCarnap’s Logical Analysis
Eminent positivists of Vienna Circle and wrote the Eminent positivists of Vienna Circle and wrote the
book Philosophy and Logical Syntax.book Philosophy and Logical Syntax.
He said that the only proper task of philosophy is He said that the only proper task of philosophy is
Logical Analysis.Logical Analysis.
The function of logical analysis is to analyze all The function of logical analysis is to analyze all
knowledge, all assertions of science and of everyday knowledge, all assertions of science and of everyday
life, in order to make clear the sense of each assertion life, in order to make clear the sense of each assertion
and the connections between them.and the connections between them.
Its purpose is to discover how we can become certain of Its purpose is to discover how we can become certain of
the truth or falsehood of any proposition. the truth or falsehood of any proposition.
One of its principal tasks is to discover the method of One of its principal tasks is to discover the method of
verification of that proposition.verification of that proposition.
According to Carnap, the method of proposition's According to Carnap, the method of proposition's
verification is either direct or indirect which are verification is either direct or indirect which are
central to the scientific method.central to the scientific method.

134. Quine’s Critique of empiricismQuine’s Critique of empiricism
He attempted to expose a more fundamental problem
with empiricism that applied not only to logical
positivism but to all traditional accounts of empiricism.
He addresses this in his 1951 essay “Two Dogmas of
Empiricism.”
The first dogma is the long-standing assumption that
statements neatly divide between those that are
analytic and those that are synthetic.
The other dogma is that of reductionism, which holds
that every meaningful statement can be translated into
a statement about immediate experience.
Quine believed that science and logic are important
conceptual schemes and useful tools.

135. Wittgenstein's Road to PhilosophyWittgenstein's Road to Philosophy
Born on April 26,1889, the youngest of eight children of one
of the wealthiest and high-placed families in Austro-
Hungarian empire.
He went to Manchester to study aeronautics but he can’t
deny the powerful inner drive to pursue his interest in
philosophy.
He suffered from strains of deciding between the two
professions of philosophy and engineering.
He was encouraged to study under Bertrand Russell.
Russell believed that Wittgenstein has been a great event of
his life. He is the young moan ones hope for.
He devoted himself to his analysis of the problem of logic.
He finished his manuscript and enter a university as a
lecturer.
His book Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was the only book
published.

136. The New WittgensteinThe New Wittgenstein
He now somewhat believed that language has many functions He now somewhat believed that language has many functions
besides simply picturing objects.besides simply picturing objects.
It occurred to Wittgenstein that the assumption that all It occurred to Wittgenstein that the assumption that all
language states facts and contains a logical skeleton was language states facts and contains a logical skeleton was
derived not from observation but from thought.derived not from observation but from thought.
He therefore shifted his plan of analysis from preoccupation He therefore shifted his plan of analysis from preoccupation
with logic and the construction of a “perfect” language to the with logic and the construction of a “perfect” language to the
study of ordinary usages of language.study of ordinary usages of language.
Clarifying Metaphysical LanguageClarifying Metaphysical Language
Wittgenstein did not reject the statements of metaphysics Wittgenstein did not reject the statements of metaphysics
outright instead, he considered metaphysician as a patient outright instead, he considered metaphysician as a patient
instead of a criminal.instead of a criminal.
Philosophy does not provide us with new or more Philosophy does not provide us with new or more
information, but instead adds clarity by a careful description information, but instead adds clarity by a careful description
of language.of language.
If metaphysics displays resistance or a prejudice that obscures If metaphysics displays resistance or a prejudice that obscures
the ordinary usage of words, Wittgenstein concedes that this the ordinary usage of words, Wittgenstein concedes that this
is not a stupid prejudice.is not a stupid prejudice.

137. Phenomenology and Existentialism
Phenomenology set asides questions about the so-called objective nature
of things.
Existentialism adopted phenomenology’s subjective approach and
further developed practical issues of human experience.
Hussel’s Life and Influence
He was born of Jewish parents in the Moravian province of Prossnitz in
1859.
He studied physics, astronomy, mathematics and found time to attend
lectures on philosophy.
He earned his PhD in the University of Vienna for his dissertation on
“Contributions to the Theory of Calculus of Variations.”
His early interest was in logic and mathematics, and next he developed
an early version of phenomenology that focused chiefly on theory of
knowledge.
Husserl’s philosophy should have had a variety of influences on
different scholars at various times such as Martin Heidegger who was
an assistant. Together with Husserl, they prepared an article on
phenomenology for the encyclopedia Britannica. Other scholars
influenced were Sartre, and Marleau-Ponty.

138. Husserl believed that the essence of consciousness is
intentionality. He means that any object of consciousness- a
pleasure, a number, a house , another person – is something
meant, constructed, constituted and intended.
For Husserl, too, intentionality is the active involvement of the
self in creating our experience. It is both the structure of
consciousness itself and the fundamental category of existence.
Phenomena and Phenomenological Bracketing
Husserl argues that phenomena are ultimately contain in the
very subjective act of experiencing something.
By focusing on the phenomena of a thing available to our
consciousness, we actually have a more enlarged description of
it. For it now includes the real object, our actual perception of
it, the object as we mean it, and the act of intentionality.
We can best understand the elements of our experience by
discovering the active role of consciousness in intending and
creating phenomena.
Husserl's said that we must put aside or bracket ay assumptions
about external things. He calls this process phenomenological
epoche’ where the term epoche’ is Greek for bracketing. He
writes that this method involves detachment from any point of
view regarding the objective world.

139. Heidegger’s Life
Martin Heidegger was an extraordinary thinker whose
reputation had spread among students of German universities.
As a teacher, he did not develop a set of ideas or a system of
philosophy. He produced nothing in the way of a neat structure
of academic ideas that a student could quickly understand and
memorize.
He set out to explore the deepest nature of our thinking when
we are thinking as existing human beings.
He was able to publish his manuscript in 1927 entitled, “Being
and Time”.
He was drafted into the “People’s Militia,” having been declared
in 1994 the “most expendable” member of the Freiburg faculty.
Dasein as Being-in-the-World
Heidegger takes a similar approach in Being and Time and
attempts to understand Being in general by first understanding
human beings.
Throughout the history of philosophy, definitions of human
beings have tended to resemble the definition of things.

140. To clearly separate Heidegger's views of human beings from
traditional theories, he coined the German term Dasein,
meaning simply “being there”.
The basic state of human existence is our being-in-the-world.
Consider, first our ordinary daily experiences, what Heidegger
calls “average everydayness.”
The central feature of our being-in-the-world is that we
encounter thing as “gear,” as what they are for.
Dasein possesses a threefold structures that makes possible the
way that we project the world.
1. Our understanding, by which we project contexts and purposes
to things. It is through these projected interrelationships that
things derive meaning.
2. Our mood or approach, which affects how we encounter our
environment. These are not merely attitudes; instead, they
describe our manner of existence and the way the world exists
for us.
3. Our discourse wherein only something that can be formulated
in speech can be understood and become subject to our moods.

141. JasperJasper
Karl Jasper was a professor in Heidelberg who wrote in
several areas including psychology, theology and political
thought.
He was influenced by Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Husserl,
and his philosophical works develop phenomenological
and existentialist themes.
His quest is for the reality that underlies the human life-a
reality that he simply calls Existence.
He does not reject the technical knowledge of science but
he insists that the practice of life requires that we bring to
this knowledge some additional reality.
The main task of existence philosophy, then is to deal with
existence, and to do this philosophers must consider their
own immediate inner and personal experiences.
According to Jasper, existence philosophy is the manner
of thought through which we seek to become ourselves. It
is a way of thought that does not restrict itself to
knowing objects but rather elucidates and makes actual
the being of the thinker.

142. SartreSartre
Jean-Paul Sartre was born in 1905.
He was attracted to philosophy by Henri
Bergson.
He spent 1 year of his study to Husserl’s
phenomenology.
He says, “that morality is a simple
superstructure, but rather that it exists at the
very level of what is called infrastructure.”
He met Simone de Beauvoir, with whom he
enjoyed a lifelong companionship.
Sartre lived simply and with few possessions,
finding fulfillment in political involvement
and travel, and needing only a small
apartment.
He died at the age of 74, on April 15,1980.

143. Existence Precedes EssenceExistence Precedes Essence
Sartre views were best known from his brief lecture
Existentialism Is a humanism.
He later reject this piece and present his classic formulation
of the basic principles of existentialism : Existentialism
precedes essence.
Sartre argues that we cannot explain human nature in the
same way that we can describe a manufactured article.
Each person, is a particular example of the universal
conception of Humanity. In short, we all possess the same
essence, and our essence precedes our individual concrete or
historical existence.
Sartre believed that if there is no God, then there is no given
human nature precisely because there is no God to have a
conception of it.
People exist, confront themselves, emerge in the world, and
define themselves afterwards, as stated by Sartre.

144. Freedom and ResponsibilityFreedom and Responsibility
Sartre analysis as an amoral subjectivism now turns out
to be an ethics of accountability based on individual
responsibility.
He says that even though we create our own values and
thereby create ourselves, we nevertheless create at the
same time an image of our human nature as we believe it
ought to be.
People must choose and make decisions, and although
we have no authoritative guide, we must still choose and
at the same time ask whether you would be willing fro
others to choose the same action.
The act of choice, is one that all of us must accomplish
with a deep sense of anguish, for in this act we are
responsible not only for ourselves but also for each
other.
Sartre says that freedom is appalling. This is precisely
because there is nothing forcing us to behave in any
given way, nor is there a precise pattern luring us in the
future.

145. Sartre agrees with Husserl that all consciousness is
consciousness of something, which means that there is no
consciousness without affirming the existence of an object
that exists beyond, that is, transcends, our consciousness.
Consciousness shifts us from being-in-itself to being-for-
itself, where consciousness dramatically differentiates the
objects of the world from the conscious self as subject.
The activity of consciousness is at this point twofold.
1.Consciousness defines specific things in the world and
invests them with meaning.
2.Consciousness puts a distance between itself and objects and
in that way, attains freedom from those objects.
The activity of consciousness is what is usually called
“choice.” We choose to undertake this project or that
project, and the meaning of things in the world will depend
to a considerable extent on what project we choose.

146. PontyPonty
Maurice Merleau-Ponty was born in 1908.
He broke with the Catholicism as he worked
through his version of phenomenology in his first
work, The structure of Behavior.
He and Sartre unfolded as a stormy relationship
during which they would be alternately friends
and enemies. They published Les Temps Moderne, a
journal aimed at a political commentary.
A few years later, Merleau-Ponty wrote a book,
Adventures of the Dialectic, in which he included
a chapter analyzing in detail Sartre’s relationship
with communism.

147. The Relativity of KnowledgeThe Relativity of Knowledge
Merleau-Ponty says that, “in the final analysis every perception
takes place within a certain horizon and ultimately in the world.”
That follows the fact that perception results from a person’s bodily
presence in the world.
Ponty tries to solve the problem by using the concept of an “a priori
of the species.”
“What I see be seen by you also,” said Merleau-Ponty.
Perception and PoliticsPerception and Politics
Merleau-Ponty rejects the lofty claims of abstract theories of
political, justice and morality.
Universal political values were imposed by people who themselves
had not participated in creating those system of government.
Ponty argues that things are not all that we encounter through
perception.
 Perception provides us with the important element of meaning.
He held that it is possible to perceive in actual society the
developing consciousness of the working class.

148. Recent PhilosophyRecent Philosophy
Philosophy is more on multicultural now than it has ever
been.
Philosophy now is driven less by the thoughts of great
individual minds and more so by great issues and
movements within the discipline.
It also recognizes the philosophical contributions of non-
western cultures.
The Mind Body- ProblemThe Mind Body- Problem
It is one of the oldest and most explored areas of philosophy.
Descartes attempted to explain how are spiritual minds
interact with our physical bodies.
The dominant issue is not one of how our spiritual minds
interact with our physical brains, instead the concern is
with how our mental experiences can be best explained in
terms of brain activity.

149. Ryle’s Ghost in the MachineRyle’s Ghost in the Machine
Ryle contends that the official doctrine of mind is unsound and Ryle contends that the official doctrine of mind is unsound and
contradicts virtually everything we know about human mentality.contradicts virtually everything we know about human mentality.
Because this traditional theory completely isolates the mind from Because this traditional theory completely isolates the mind from
the body, and this is termed as “dogma of the Ghost in the the body, and this is termed as “dogma of the Ghost in the
Machine.”Machine.”
He says that people who are perfectly capable of applying concepts He says that people who are perfectly capable of applying concepts
are nevertheless liable in their abstract thinking to allocate those are nevertheless liable in their abstract thinking to allocate those
concepts to logical categories to which they do not belong.concepts to logical categories to which they do not belong.
Identity Theory and Functional ExistentialismIdentity Theory and Functional Existentialism
Ryle’s behaviorism presumes that we can explain everything there Ryle’s behaviorism presumes that we can explain everything there
is about mental events by looking solely at sensory input and is about mental events by looking solely at sensory input and
behavioral output.behavioral output.
 Identity theory is the view that mental states are identical to Identity theory is the view that mental states are identical to
brain activity. It attempts to bring the whole issue of human brain activity. It attempts to bring the whole issue of human
consciousness under the umbrella of science – specifically, consciousness under the umbrella of science – specifically,
neuroscience.neuroscience.
The most common criticism of identity theory is that it fails a The most common criticism of identity theory is that it fails a
principle called Leibniz’s law. Leibniz argued that two things are principle called Leibniz’s law. Leibniz argued that two things are
truly identical, then properties asserted about the one thing must truly identical, then properties asserted about the one thing must
also be assreted about the other.also be assreted about the other.

150. Searle’s Chinese Room ArgumentSearle’s Chinese Room Argument
John Searle is a former student of John Austin at Oxford John Searle is a former student of John Austin at Oxford
University.University.
Searle was bothered by grandiose claims of computer scientist that a Searle was bothered by grandiose claims of computer scientist that a
computer program could interpret stories the way humans do.computer program could interpret stories the way humans do.
Searle counters the view with a picturesque through experiment. Searle counters the view with a picturesque through experiment.
Suppose that I, or some other non-Chinese speaking person, am put Suppose that I, or some other non-Chinese speaking person, am put
in a room and given three sets of Chinese characters.in a room and given three sets of Chinese characters.
A large batch of Chinese writing constituting the structure of A large batch of Chinese writing constituting the structure of
that language.that language.
A story, andA story, and
Questions about the story.Questions about the story.
According to Searle, it is quite obvious that “I do not According to Searle, it is quite obvious that “I do not
understand a word of the Chinese stories. I have inputs and understand a word of the Chinese stories. I have inputs and
outputs that are indistinguishable from those of the native outputs that are indistinguishable from those of the native
Chinese speaker, and I can have any formal program you like, Chinese speaker, and I can have any formal program you like,
but I still understand nothing.”but I still understand nothing.”
For Searle this scenario goes against both of the above claims of For Searle this scenario goes against both of the above claims of
strong artificial intelligence.strong artificial intelligence.

151. Rorty’s Analytic PhilosophyRorty’s Analytic Philosophy
Richard Rorty is an American philosopher who Richard Rorty is an American philosopher who
stated that analytic philosophy did not usher in a stated that analytic philosophy did not usher in a
major change in the assumptions of philosophy.major change in the assumptions of philosophy.
What is new in analytic philosophy, Rorty says, What is new in analytic philosophy, Rorty says,
is the conviction that knowledge is presented by is the conviction that knowledge is presented by
what is linguistic and not by what is mental.what is linguistic and not by what is mental.
We still have in analytic philosophy, We still have in analytic philosophy,
““knowing subject,”knowing subject,”
a “reality out there,” anda “reality out there,” and
A “theory of representation”A “theory of representation”
It describes how reality is represented to the It describes how reality is represented to the
knowing subject.knowing subject.

152. Virtue Epistemology
Epistemology-the study of knowledge-focuses on the ways
that we acquire knowledge and the standards that we use
for maintaining that we know things.
Virtue epistemology, though, shifts the emphasis from the
properties of my belief to the properties of me the person.
Virtue responsibilism is a bolder version of virtue
epistemology which maintains that the mental abilities that
are truly important for knowledge are good intellectual
character traits.
Aristotle maintained about moral virtues, these
epistemological virtues are acquired through practice and
eventually become habits of thinking.
According to Zagzebski who is a proponent of this approach,
there are two features present when we act upon
epistemological virtues.
Our virtuous motivation wherein other intellectually
virtuous people would rather perform the same act in
similar circumstances.
Reliable success wherein through our virtuous counduct we
arrive at truth.

153. Structuralism
It began in the early 1900s as a theory explaining the nature of
language.
Ferdinand de Saussure was bothered by standard 19
th
century
linguistic theories that presumed to find some commonality
between various foreign languages.
He argued that each language is a closed formal system – an
entity unto itself – with no significant connection to other
languages or even to the physical objects to which the words
presumably refer.
Saussure realized that his theory had implications beyond
language and in fact could apply to other systems of social
convention.
The two key components of the structuralist movement, then,
are
The meaning of a thing is defined by its surrounding cultural
structures.
The system has a coherent structure that is reflected in paired
opposites.

154. Post-Structuralism
Appeared in the 1970’s which is both an expansion on and
refutation of structuralism.
It has branched out into several disciplines, perhaps most notably
in the field of literary criticism.
In philosophy, post-structuralism is most associated with the
French philosopher Jacques Derrida. He target philosophy books
and argues that throughout the history of Western thought
philosophers have built their theories around key opposing
concepts.
Derrida believes that these philosophical concepts are also
suspect. Through a technique that he calls deconstruction, he
attempts to show that all of these paired opposites in philosophy
are in fact self-refuting.
According to Derrida, one of the more central dichotomies
underlying philosophical discourse is that between speech and
writing.
He stated that both speech and writing involve basic elements of
language such as conventional use of symbols and strict rules of
grammar.

155. Postmodernism
Postmodernism is not a single philosophical theory; to be
so would be self-defeating. Instead, it is an umbrella
movement that covers a variety of critiques of the modern
conception of things.
Post-structuralism is perhaps the most dominant of
these, and for this reason the terms postmodern and post-
structural are often used interchangeably.
However, much of the recent philosophy targets
modernism and thus would also count as postmodern.
Much of postmodernist discussion extends well beyond
the discipline of philosophy, which is only one
manifestation of modern culture.
Postmodernists writers, musicians, and artists thus
attempt to break the traditional molds of their respective
genres.

157. Prepared by:
NR – 22
“Philosophy of Man”
Leader:
Eloise Pateño
Asst. leader:
Carhen Limpin
Members:
Hannah Kaye Bacani
Aina Boydon
Monique Reyes