INTRODUCTION 11
longer to be construed as a stable, unchanging background from which character-
based plots could be easily separated. Rather, as many critics of the new modern-
ist studies have recognized, space, landscape, and location become agents within
the narrative economy of modernist fi ction. As Laura Doyle and Laura Winkiel
assert (with a conscious echo of William Carlos Williams), for modernist writ-
ers at large, “so much depends . . . on place, proximity, position.”
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Th e geographic
modernism that I discuss here is not identical with, but is very much a part of, this
foregrounding of space as an active narrative agent rather than as a naturally given
“setting.” Herein lies the distinction between geography and metageography, then,
as they relate to fi ctional narrative: geography speaks to the particularities of place,
proximity, and position, while metageography interrogates a broader system that
makes the particularities of place and position possible. Th e reader’s attention, in
other words, is drawn to the production of geographical space.
What purpose, then, was served by the introduction of this geographical
self-consciousness into literature? Signifi cantly, in the novels I look at, the pro-
cess of becoming geographic is almost always a move outward, away from the
local, human-centered scale of character-driven actions and plots toward a more
detached overview of a wider global space. Forster’s language in the earlier passage
is instructive here: the geographic imagination “encircles” the nation, taking on this
distant, external view. Although Forster does not literally invoke cartography in this
scene, the narrator’s perspective assumes a position from which the entire “English”
nation could be viewed, as if looking down upon a map. Th is exterior view calls to
mind a literalization of the cosmopolitan viewpoint, in which the viewing subject
rises above the place-bound attachments of the nation-state to take the measure
of the world as a wider totality. Increasingly, maps provided the portal for such
overviews, and, aft er cartography’s late-eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century
scientifi c turn, the form of the map itself implied a coherent, quantitatively know-
able totality. Infl uenced by the projects of the European Enlightenment, mapping
began to acquire a rhetoric of totality and scientifi c accuracy. As Matthew Edney
points out, “the map was thus the conceptual unifi er of geographical knowledge:
as Burke, and Diderot, and d’Alembert all signaled, a means to and metaphor for
global ordering.”
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Maps, then, came to imply a totality of which the pictured view
was merely a part or section. While off ering a powerful form for the spatialization
of knowledge, maps remained marginalized within the discipline of geography
itself. Maps were oft en seen as mere instruments, visual devices to serve as short-
hand for more profound observations about space. In fact, the “new geography” of
the late nineteenth century was much more concerned with narrative than with
cartography. Cartography was an instrumental necessity for “proper” geography,